khasi – Meghalaya PCS Free Notes

Minerals in Meghalaya

January 15, 2018October 26, 2024 by rawan239

Minerals in Meghalaya

Meghalaya is endowed with sizeable deposits of a number of valuable minerals. Coal, limestone, uranium, granite, kaolin, clay and glass sand are the principal minerals. A brief account of mineral resources is as follows:

Limestone

An extensive bed of limestone occurs in the Southern part of the State from Jaintia Hills in the East and Garo Hills in the West. The main deposits are found around Cherrapunjee, Mawlong, Ichamati, Shella, Komorrah in the East Khasi Hills district; Borsora and Bagli in the West Khasi Hills district; Lakadong, Lumshnong and Nongkhlieh in the Jaintia Hills district; and Darrang Era-aning, Siju, Chokpot in the South Garo Hills district.

Coal

Most of the coal reserves in Meghalaya are tertiary reserves.Coal occurs in Mikir Hills, Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills districts. The production of upgraded coal was reported by private non-captive mines in the unorganised sector located in these areas except Mikir Hills district. The mines are operated mostly by the local tribals in their private lands.

Uranium reserves in Meghalaya

Meghalaya is the third uranium rich state in the country after Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh. The state accounts for 16 per cent of Indias uranium reserves, with deposits estimated to be around 9,500 tones and 4,000 tones respectively at Domiasiat and Wakhyn, both in West Khasi hills region. Minerals in Meghalaya

Kyelleng-Pyndengsohiong, Mawthabah (KPM) uranium mining project is located in the West Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya state in the North East region of India. Formerly this project was also known as Domiasiat uranium mining project. The Atomic Mineral Directorate for Exploration and Research in 1972 found evidences of uranium deposits in the area which was confirmed by 1996 after intensive drilling between 1992 and 1996. Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL) proposes to mine it using open pit mining method up to a depth of 45 m. The processing plant will be constructed at Mawthabah. It is estimated that KPM deposit in Meghalaya will last for 25 years.

Clay

Clay of various types such as Kaolin (China clay), white clay, and fire clay are found in various parts of the states. These clay are suitable for the ceramic, paper, rubber and refractory industries. It has been estimated that there are a few hundred million tonnes of clay reserved in the state.

Granite reserves

Deposits of multi-coloured granite have been located around nongpoh in the Ri-Bhoi district, mylliem in the east khasi hills district; mawkyrwat and nongstoin in the west khasi hills distric.

Sand deposits

The sand deposits of the State are mainly concentrated in Khasi hills. The glass deposits of Laitryn grew coal field and around Shillong are found to be suitable for manufacturing of ordinary bottle glasrs, window glass etc. and with some chemical pu rification even for sheet glass and flint glass. Some of the sands are within the specifica tion o f foundry sands, which are now in great demand in the country. The estimated reserve of glass deposits is about 2.30 m illion tonnes as against Tripura – 0.18 m illion tones.

Feldspar and quartz occur near Tura in Garo hills and near Hahim in Khasi Hills. The estimated mining reserve of feldspar in the State (0.02 million tonnes) is at par with Assam (0.02 million tonne),2 3456 while the quartz is 2.03 m illion tonnes as compared to Tripura – 0.19 million tonnes.

Massive sillimanite associated with corrundum occurs in Khasi hills . More than 2i deposits have been located in the vicinity of Sonapahar, Nongpur and Nongbain villages and are worked by the Assam Sillimanite Ltd. Most of the deposits contain sillimanite with admixed corrundum to a little extent, one or two entirely of corrundum and several of sillimanite only.

Vegetation of Meghalaya

October 22, 2017October 26, 2024 by rawan239

Vegetation of Meghalaya

The floral diversity of Meghalaya is well reputed for its richness and has been a centre of attraction for many botanists.
The presence of a large number of primitive flowering plants has prompted Takhtajan (1969) to call it the Cradle of Flowering Plants’.
Meghalaya harbours about 3,128 species of flowering plants and contributes about 18% of the total flora of the country, including 1,237 endemic species.
A wide variety of wild cultivable plants, edible fruits, leafy vegetables and orchids are found in the natural forests of Meghalaya.
However due to overexploitation, deforestation and habitat destruction many endemic and threatened species are now mainly confined to the protected areas and sacred groves.
The region is a habitat for many botanical curiosities and botanical rarities.
Among insectivorous plants Nepenthes khasiana Hk. f. and two species of Drosera i.e, Drosera peltata Sm. and D. burmanii Vahl. are important.
Nepenthes khasiana is endemic to Meghalaya and listed in Appendix I of CITES and placed in Schedule VI of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
The Khasi and Jaintia hills are considered to be the centre of diversity for several primitive families such as Elaeocarpaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Anonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Piperraceae, Menispermaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Lauraceae, Myricaceae, Lazarbiaceae and primitive genera like Sarcandra, Corylopis, Myrica, Magnolia and Michelia.

Types of Vegetation of Meghalaya

According to Champion & Seth (1968), major forest types of Vegetation of Meghalaya are:-

Assam Sub-tropical Hill Savanna
Khasi Sub-tropical Hill Forests
Assam Sub-tropical Pine Forests
Assam Sub-tropical Pine Savannah

Haridasan & Rao (1985-87) recognized the following major categories of Vegetation of Meghalaya based on altitude, rainfall and dominant species composition:

Tropical Evergreen Forests
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
Tropical Moist and Dry Deciduous Forests
Grasslands and Savannas
Temperate Forests
Sub-tropical Pine Forests

Tropical Evergreen Forests:

This forest type spreads over the lower reaches of Khasi, Jaintia and Garo hills up to 1200m and usually occurs in high rainfall areas as well as near catchment areas.
The dominant tree species include Castanopsis indica, Tribuloides,Dysoxylum sp, Elaeocarpus sp, Engelhardtia spicata, Syzygium spp., Tetrameles nudifloraetc. which are densely interwoven by lianas. The ground flora of under shrubs and herbs include Dracaena elliptica, Leea edgeworthia, Phlogacanthus sp., and other species belonging to the family Acanthaceae, Rubiaceae, Balsaminaceae and Asteraceae.
The tree trunk and branches are covered with epiphytes belonging to Ferns, Orchids, Gesneriads, Piper, mosses and many others.
Lianas and climbers like Rhaphidophora spp. are also abundant.

Tropical Semi Evergreen Forests:

This forest type occupy the north and north-eastern slopes of the state up to an elevation of 1200m and with an annual rainfall of 1500-2000mm.
However there are deciduous elements along with evergreen types. Careya arborea, Dillenia pentagyna, Callicarpa arborea, Tetrameles spp, etc are some of the deciduous species.
Other dominant species are Elaeocarpus floribundus, Dillenia indica, Symplocos paniculata, Sapindus rarak
The ground flora is also much seasonal with greater representation from the Zingiberaceae family.

Tropical Moist and Dry Deciduous Forest:

This is a very prominent Vegetation of Meghalaya covering a large part of East and West Garo Hills, Ri-bhoi districts etc, in areas of annual rainfall less than 1500mm and high temperature.
These forests are characterised by seasonal leaf shedding and profuse flowering. The dominant tree species which are valued economically are Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Terminalia myriocarpa, Gmelina arborea, Artocarpus chapsala, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Maorus laevigata
Other associated species are Schima wallichii, Toona ciliata, Albizzia lebbeck, Dillenia pentagyna, etc.
The epiphytic floras in less but orchids, ferns, Asclepidaiceae members are often seen.
Bamboo forests are not natural but occur in patches sporadically in jhum fallows. The common bamboo species are Dendrocalamus hamiltoniiand Melocanna
Some other species less frequently found are Bambusa pallida, Bambusa tulda, Chimonobambusa khasiana, etc.

Grasslands and Savannahs:

Grasslands in Vegetation of Meghalaya are secondary in nature and are prevalent in higher altitudes and are a result of removal of pristine forests, the relics of which could be seen amidst these grasslands as sacred groves.
The dominant grass genera in the grasslands are Panicum, Paspalum, Imperata, Axonopus, Neyraudia, Sporobolus, Saccharum, Chrysopogon, Oplisminusand others along with sedges.

Temperate Forests:

The temperate forests occupy the higher elevations (>1000m) with very high rainfalls (2000-5000 mm) along the Southern slopes of Khasi and Jaintia Hills.
The sacred groves largely fall under this category and are the relic type evolved through millions of years.
The common trees are Lithocarpus fenestratus, Castanopsis kurzii, Quercus griffithii, Q. semiserrata, Schima khasiana, Myrica esculenta, Symplocos glomerata, Photinia arguta, Ficus nemoralis, Manglietia caveana, Acer spp., Exbucklandia populnea, Engelhardtia spicata, Betula alnoides, Rhododendron arboretum, etc. Shrubs include Mahonia pycnophylla, Daphne papyraceae, Polygala arillata, Camellia caduca, Rubus spp.,
These forest are exceptionally rich in epiphytic flora comprising Ferns, Lichens, Mosses, Orchids, Zingibers, etc.

Subtropical Pine forests:

The pine forests are confined to the higher reaches (900m – 1500 m) of the Shillong plateau in Khasi and Jaintia Hills.
Pinus kesiyais the principal species which form pure stands. In certain places the pines are associated with a few broad leaved species like Schima wallichii, Myrica esculenta, Erythrina arborescence, Rhus javanica, Rhododendron arboretum, Quercus spp., etc.
Shrubs include Rubus, Osbeckia, Spireaand Artemesia.
During rainy season there is a profuse herbaceous undergrowth of Chrysanthemum, Aster, Hypochaeris, Prunella, Plectranthus, Desmodium, Ranunculus, Anemone, Potentilla, Clinopodium, Polygonum, Elsholtzia, etc

Important Tree Species of Meghalaya

Rare, Endangered and Threatened Plant Species

A recent review of literature carried out Meghalaya Biodiversity Board reveals that a total of 436 Rare, Endangered and Threatened plant species have been recorded from Meghalaya representing 13.09% of the state’s flora.
Gastrochilus calceolaris, Gymnocladus assamicus, Illichium griffithii, Pterocybium tinctorium, Saurauia punduana, Taxus baccata and Vatica lanceafolia are few of the Critically Endangered plant species of Vegetation of Meghalaya .

Extinct Plant Species

Carex repanda, Cyclea debiliflora, Dendrobenthamia capitata, Hedychium hookeri, Homiorchis rhodorrhachis, Michelia lanuginose, Morinda villosa, Nymphaea pygmaea, Pleione lagenaria, Premna punduana, Schleichera trijuga, Sterculia khasiana and Talauma rabaniana are considered to have gone extinct in Vegetation of Meghalaya .

Endemic Plant Species:

They are species with restricted range of distribution.
A recent review of literature carried out by Meghalaya Biodiversity Board reveals a total of 281 Endemic plant species have been recorded from Meghalaya representing 8.44% of the state’s flora.
Of these, around 102 are listed under various Threat Categories and two in the Extinct Category. Ilex khasiana and Nepenthes khasiana are the Endemic and Critically Endangered species.
Some of the Endemic and Endangered species found in Meghalaya are Adinandra griffithii, Ceropegia arnottiana, Clematis apiculata, Elaeagnus conferta ssp. dendroidea, Eriocaulon barba-caprae, Goniothalamus simonsii, Ilex venulosa, Livistona jenkinsiana, Ophiorrhiza subcapitata and Trivalvaria kanjilalii.

Orchids:

Meghalaya is endowed with a rich and luxuriant orchid flora of nearly 352 species belonging to 98 genera representing 27.08% of the country’s orchid flora.
For several centuries, orchids have been known for their attractive flowers and their medicinal properties.
The majority of the orchids are epiphytes, however, lithophytes, terrestrials and saprophytes are also encountered.
They are found to inhabit ranges from Sub-tropical evergreen to moist mixed deciduous types of forests.
Aerides multiflorum, Coelogyne corymbosa, Cymbidium elegans, Dendrobium devonianum, Dendrobium longicornu, Paphiopedilum insigne, Rhynchostylis retusa, Phaius tankervilliae, Thunia marshalliana and Vanda coerulea are few of the exotic orchids of Meghalaya.

Bamboo and Canes:

The state harbours more than 37 species of Bamboos belonging to 14 genera.
Some of the important genera are Arundinaria, Bambusa, Cephalostachyum, Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, Melocanna, Neohouzeoua, Oxytenanthera, Phyllostachys, Pseudostachyum, Schizostachyum, Teinostachyum and Thamnocalamus. Arundinaria hirsuta, A. manii, Bambusa jaintiana, B. mastersii, B. pseudopallida, Cephalostachyum pallidum, Chimonobambusa callosa, Chimonobambusa griffithiana, Chimonobambusa khasiana, Chimonobambusa polystachya, Dendrocalamus sikkimensis, Phyllostachys manii, Schizostachyum dulloa, Schizostachyum griffithi, Schizostachyum helferi, S. manii, S. pallidum, Schizostachyum polymorphum and Thamnocalamus prainii are endemic.
Cane (Calamus sp) is a woody climber and several species are known to occur in Meghalaya.
It is usually found to inhabit warm and moist climate at lower elevations.
Calamus erectus and C. floribundus are the endemic canes occurring in the state.
Cane and Bamboo craft is a very important handicraft sector in Meghalaya.

Medicinal Plants:

Of the total 3,331 plant species recorded in the state around 834 (25.04%) are estimated to be employed in healthcare.
These species are distributed in 548 genera and 166 families.
The family with the highest number of medicinal plant species is Rubiaceae followed by Asteraceae and Fabaceae.
These species are restricted mainly to sacred groves, community forests and reserved forests and some to grasslands, roadsides, cults and fields, etc.
Due to high level of exploitation and faulty harvesting techniques, many of the endemic species such as Acanthus leucostachys, Calamus erectus, C. aurantium, C. latipes, Curcuma montana, Daphniphyllum himalense, Eleaegnus conferta ssp. dendroidea, Goniothalamus simonsii, Hedera nepalensis, Hymenodictyon excelsum, Ilex embeloides, Mahonia pycnophylla, Munronia pinnata, Nepenthes khasiana, Ochna squarrosa, Ophiorrhiza sub-capitata, Paramignya micrantha, Piper peepuloides, Schima khasiana and Sophora accuminata have been rendered rare.

Meghalaya Human Development Index

December 12, 2017October 25, 2024 by rawan239

Meghalaya Human Development Index

The State of Meghalaya is situated on the north east of India. It extends for about 300 kilometres in length and about 100 kilometres in breadth. It is bounded on the north by Goalpara, KamrupandNowgong districts, on the east by KarbiAnglong and North Cachar Hills districts, all of Assam, and on the south and west by Bangladesh.

Meghalaya is subject to vagaries of the monsoon. The average annual rainfall is about 2600 mm over western Meghalaya, between 2500 to 3000 mm over northern Meghalaya and about 4000 mm over south-eastern Meghalaya. There is a great variation of rainfall over central and southern Meghalaya. Meghalaya Human Development Index

Meghalaya is basically an Agricultural State with about 80% of its total population depending entirely on Agriculture for their livelihood. Rainfall varies from place to place and from altitude to altitude. The amount of rainfall over Cherrapunjee and Mawsynram is quite heavy. During the last two decades, it has ranged from 11,995 mm to 14,189 mm in Cherrapunjee and over Mawsynram it was 10,689 mm to 13,802 mm.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX:-

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of quality of life. It mainly comprise three components:-

A long and healthy life: Life expectancy at birth.
Education index: Mean years of schooling and Expected years of schooling.
A decent standard of living: GNI per capita (PPP US$)for countries worldwide. It is a standard means of measuring well-being, especially child welfare.
It is used to distinguish whether the country is a developed, a developing or an under-developed country, and also to measure the impact of economic policies on quality of life.

According to Global Hunger Index – 2017, only 9.6 per cent of our children, between 6 and 23 months of age, receive adequate diet and 97 million children in India are underweight! Thus Indian economy is going to face a gigantic problem of unhealthy and unskilled work-force in the future, which will further degrade our resources into liabilities. Ironically, according to a study, two-thirds of food to feed 600 million poor Indians is lost as hungry millions do not have enough purchasing power to buy the same. Now, government itself can buy it from farmers with minimum support price (MSP). It will certainly stop the incidence of farmers’ suicides. The excess food can then be distributed to students in addition to the midday meal. This will attract more students to school and address the issues like illiteracy, school dropout, child labour, hunger and malnutrition.

In the Human Development Index (HDI) of India for the year 2011, Meghalaya is ranked 26th with 0.585(Medium) HDI value.

Measures of HDI indicators for Meghalaya:-

Mizoram per capita income in 2009-10:- Rs 35,323,
Literacy according 2011 census :-84% (24^th rank),the male literacy rate is 77.2 per cent and the female literacy rate is 73.8 per cent. In 2011-12, the state had a total of 43,102 teachers in lower primary & upper primary schools, 4,621 teachers in secondary schools and 526 teachers in higher secondary schools.
Education index of Meghalaya :- 0.512,(28^th rank).

Meghalaya, among the eight North Eastern States, is ranked 7th, only above Assam which has 0.534 HDI value in 2011.
Meghalaya’s first HDI report “Meghalaya Human Development Report 2008” was published in 2009, and has been the sole report since to indicate the health of the State to the world.The report clearly indicated that the rate of development in Meghalaya is slower than in most of the state and hence, been lagging behind while many states have improved their ranking.
The report highlighted that the health sector is poor and East Khasi Hills tops in HDI and GDI among the districts followed by West Garo Hills.
The report seemed to highlight Meghalaya being significantly behind in almost all sectors in comparison all other states while it failed to furnish full details, which could make it possible to make better comparisons.
Even then, a new report is yet to be furnished.

State-wise HDI score and rank 1992-93 to 2005-06 for north east states:-

	HDI	Rank	HDI	Rank
States	1992-93	1992-93	2005-06	2005-06
Arunachal Pradesh	0.130	8	0.082	8
Assam	0.450	2	0.472	2
Manipur	0.372	3	0.440	4
Meghalaya	0.176	7	0.208	7
Mizoram	0.657	1	0.622	1
Nagaland	0.332	4	0.292	6
Sikkim	0.327	5	0.462	2
Tripura	0.269	6	0.439	5

Introduction to Meghalaya Economy

October 28, 2017October 25, 2024 by rawan239

Introduction to Meghalaya Economy

About Meghalaya:

Meghalaya, the Abode of Clouds, is a state in the Northeast region of India. The state has a total area of 22,429 sq km and about one third of the state is under mountain forest cover. Meghalaya has a total population of 29,66,889, as per the 2011 census. Shillong is the capital of Meghalaya. The state is surrounded by Assam to its north and Bangladesh to its south.

Meghalaya lies in the Northeastern part of India. The fact remains that a major part of the border of the state is situated on the north and eastern part of Assam. The south and west part are with Bangladesh. It is possible to consider Meghalaya as the wettest state in the country, experiencing an annual rainfall of 1,200 cm. There are numerous rivers including Ganol, Umiam, Umngot, Umkhem and Damring. Apart from the aforementioned rivers, you can also find a number of other rivers such as Umiam Mawphlang and Khri.

Economy of Meghalaya

The economy of Meghalaya is predominantly agrarian. About two-third of the total population of the state is engaged in allied and agriculture. Although the majority of the population is involved in agriculture as profession, this sector has very low contribution in the GDP of the state. The climatic conditions of the state encourage the cultivation of variety of horticulture crops which includes vegetables, fruits, spices, flowers etc. The state is rich in natural resources and plenty of minerals such as sillimanite, limestone, coal, granite etc. are available in abundance.

Meghalaya, with an average annual rainfall of 1,150 cm, receives the highest amount of rainfall in the country. The diverse range of soil types, including red-loamy and laterite, support various agricultural crops like rice, maize, pulses, oilseeds, cotton, jute and mesta. Meghalaya has a strong floriculture sector and is one of the leading states in the Northeast in terms of production and supply of cut flowers to mainland consumer markets. About 14 per cent (3,108 square kilometres) of Meghalaya is covered by bamboo forests, and the state is one of the leading bamboo producers in the country. The state has achieved success in the cultivation of non-traditional crops like tea, cashew nut, oilseeds, tomato, mushroom, wheat, etc. During 2015-16, the state produced 409.25 thousand tonnes of fruits under an area of 37.14 thousand hectares. Similarly, 88.20 thousand tonnes of spices were produced in the state under an area of 18.20 thousand hectares during 2015-16.

Of the 6,000 medicinal plants in India, 834 plants, including the famous Himalayan Yew, are in Meghalaya. Moreover, the state has eight of the top 20 medicinal plants that are traded in the country and are in high demand.

Meghalaya had an installed hydroelectric power capacity of 356.58 MW as of June 2016, comprising 313.03 MW from state utilities and 197.42 MW from central utilities. Of the total installed power generation capacity, 356.58 MW was contributed by hydropower, 122.84 MW by thermal power, and 31.03 MW by renewable power. The potential for hydropower in the state is estimated to be around 3,000 MW.

Meghalaya, with abundant deposits of coal, limestone, kaolin feldspar, quartz, granite, industrial clay and uranium and a small deposit base of sillimanite, bauxite, base metals and apatite has great industrial potential.

Meghalaya, one of the most picturesque states in the country, has two National Parks and three wildlife sanctuaries. It offers many adventure tourism opportunities like mountaineering, rock climbing, hiking & trekking, water sports, etc.

Agro-processing, horticulture, minerals, tourism, electronics and IT have been identified as thrust sectors for development and promotion. The state provides excellent institutional support through various central and state government agencies, namely North East Council, Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region, and Meghalaya Industrial Development Corporation.

The natural resources, policy incentives and infrastructure in the state favour investments in the tourism, hydroelectric power, manufacturing and mining sectors. Mineral, horticulture, electronics, IT, agro-processing and tourism have been identified as the thrust sectors for industrial development. The state has abundant natural resources, which offer significant avenues for investment. About 14 per cent (3,108 square kilometres) of Meghalaya is covered by bamboo forests and the state is one of the leading bamboo producers in the country.

Key Sectors:

Meghalaya is one of the leading north-eastern states in terms of production and supply of cut flowers to mainland consumer markets. The state’s climate, particularly the areas near Shillong in East Khasi hills district, is well suited for cut flower production.
Meghalaya is one of the leading producers of bamboo in the country. Bamboo enterprises can be developed from the bamboo reserves and forest cultivations. Natural bamboo forests cover 3,108 square kilometers (14 per cent) of Meghalaya’s total geographical area.
Meghalaya has a climate that supports agricultural and horticultural activities. The state offers potential for investment in these areas.
As of June 2016, the state had an installed hydroelectric power capacity of 356.58 MW. The state utilities accounted for a share of 79 per cent in total installed capacity and the remaining is contributed by the central sector. Hydroelectric power projects with a total capacity of 687 MW have been proposed to be set up in Meghalaya. All these projects are projected to be operational by 2016-17.
Meghalaya is richly endowed with flora, fauna, thick forests, ancient forest groves, large rivers and grass fields – making it an attractive tourism destination.
Meghalaya has an established tradition of high-quality weaving. Around 15,900 families are involved in handloom activities in the state. There are eight handloom production centres, 24 handloom demonstration-cum-production centres, 24 weaving training centres and a state-level handloom training institute (Mendipathar, East Garo Hills) in the state.

Scheduled Tribe of Meghalaya

January 15, 2018October 5, 2024 by rawan239

Scheduled Tribe of Meghalaya

Based on 2011 Census total popultaion of India is 121.08 Crore out of which ST population is 10.45 Crore (8.6%) .
The tribal communities in India are enormously diverse and heterogeneous. There are wide ranging diversities among them in respect of languages spoken, size of population and mode of livelihood.
The number of communities that find their place in the list of the Schedule of the Indian constitution is reflective of this diversity. The Government of India, in its Draft National Tribal Policy, 2006 records 698 Scheduled Tribes in India.
As per the Census of India 2011, the number of individual groups notified as Scheduled Tribes is 705.
Tribes of Meghalaya represent the inhabitants of Meghalaya who reside in the foothills as well as within the mountain ranges of Garo, Khasi and Jaintia.
The origin of these tribes can be traced from the Tibeto-Burman race and Proto Austroloid Monkhmer race. While the Garos can be traced as the descendents of Tibeto-Burman race, the Khasis and the Jaintias are claimed to have belonged to the Proto Austroloid Monkhmer race.
Along with this there are a number of tribes like the Bhois, Khynriams and the Wars who reside in the northern, southern and central parts of Meghalaya.
Largely the tribal groups follow Christianity though the state follows all the 3 religions namely Hinduism, Buddhism as well as Christianity.
Tribes of Meghalaya are distinctly marked for their social structure. The traditional dress of Meghalaya is known as ‘Jymphong’ which is often worn during the festivals and ceremonies.
The tribal society of Meghalaya primarily depends on subsistence agriculture.

In According to 2011 Census and Ministry of Tribal Affiars Reports the Tribal Polpulation of Meghalaya

Total Population of Meghalaya	29,66,889
Total Population of ST in Meghalaya	25,55,861
Percentage of ST population on Meghalaya	86.1
% STs in the State to total ST population in India	2.4
Sex Ratio in STs (Gender Composition of Scheduled Tribe Population)	1013
Literacy Rates of ST Population in State	74.4%

Total Scheduled Tribes in Meghalaya that included in Constiturional List of Scheduled tribe by Government of India through President order with Name like

Chakma
Dimasa, Kachari
Garo
Hajong
Hmar
Khasi, Jaintia, Synteng, Pnar, War,
Bhoi, Lyngngam
Any Kuki tribes, including:-
1. Biate, Biete
2. Changsan
3. Chongloi
4. Doungel
5. Gamalhou
6. Gangte
7. Guite
8. Hanneng
9. Haokip, Haupit
10. Haolai
11. Hengna
12. Hongsungh
13. Hrangkhwal, Rangkhol
14. Jongbe
15. Khawchung
16. Khawathlang, Khothalong
17. Khelma
18. Kholhou
19. Kipgen
20. Kuki
21. Lengthang
22. Lhangum
23. Lhoujem
24. Lhouvun
25. Lupheng
26. Mangjel
27. Misao
28. Riang
29. Sairhem
30. Selnam
31. Singson
32. Sitlhou
33. Sukte
34. Thado
35. Thangngeu
36. Uibuh
37. Vaiphei
Lakher
Man (Tai Speaking)
Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes
Mikir
Any Naga tribes
Pawi
Synteng
Boro Kacharis
Koch
Raba, Rava

State List of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups

PVTGs, currently including 75 tribal groups, have been identified as such on the basis of the following criteria:

forest-dependent livelihoods,
pre-agricultural level of existence,
stagnant or declining population,
low literacy rates
a subsistence-based economy.

As currently there is no tribal group included in this list.

Sixth Scheduled of Consstitution which govern these tribes

The original Sixth Schedule areas created in 1952 underwent a drastic reorganization in 1971; some areas were put under newly created States such as Mizoram and Meghalaya which were carved out of the erstwhile Assam State. The Sixth Schedule (Article 244 (2) and 275 (1)) provides for administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram through Autonomous District and Regional Councils endowed with legislative, judicial, and executive powers.

The Sixth Schedule under Article 244 (2) provides for the creation of Autonomous District Councils (ADC) in an Autonomous District and Regional Councils for autonomous regions. These Councils have legislative powers on matters relating to:

allotment, occupation, or the setting apart of land, other than reserved forests, for the purpose of agricultural or grazing or for residential or other non-agricultural purposes or for any other purpose likely to promote the interests of the inhabitants of any village or town (Provided that nothing in such laws shall prevent the compulsory acquisition of any land, whether occupied or unoccupied for public purpose)
management of any forest not being a Reserved Forest
use of any canal or water course for purpose of agriculture
regulation of the practice of jhum or any other form of shifting cultivation
establishment of village or town committees or Councils and their powers
any other matter relating to village or town administration, including village and town police, public health and sanitation
appointment of succession of chiefs or headmen
inheritance of property
marriage and divorce
social custom
The entire State of Meghalaya except Shillong area is covered under the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. Meghalaya has three Autonomous District Councils under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. These are –

Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council (KHADC),
Garo Hills Autonomous District Council (GHADC),
and the Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council (JHADC).

Major Tribal Group of Meghalaya

Garo Tribe of Meghalaya:

The Garos are mainly distributed over the Kamrup, Goalpara and Karbi Anglong districts of Assam, Garo Hills and few in Khasi Hills in Meghalaya and Dimapur (Nagaland State), substantial numbers, about 200,000 are found in greater Mymens ingh ( Tangail, Jamalpur, Sherpore, Netrakona, Mymensingh) and capital Dhaka, Gazipur, Sirajgonj, Rangpur, Sunamganj, Sylhet, Moulovibazar districts of Bangladesh. It is estimated that total Garo population in India and Bangladesh together is about 1 million.
They originally belong to the Bodo family from the Tibetan-Burmese race; also reside in the plains of Assam and Bangladesh.
The Garo language belongs to the Bodo–Garo branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family.
The Garos are one of the few remaining matrilineal societies in the world. The individuals take their clan titles from their mothers. Traditionally, the youngest daughter (nokmechik) inherits the property from her mother. Sons leave the parents’ house at puberty, and are trained in the village bachelor dormitory (nokpante). After getting married, the man lives in his wife’s house. Garos are only a matrilinear society, but not matriarchal. While the property is owned by women, the men govern the society and domestic affairs and manage the property. This provides security to Garo women.
Like other tribes in Meghalaya these tribes too follow maternal lineage in case of inheritance of property and enjoy all kind of vegetarian well as non-vegetarian food in case of regional delicacies.
The Garos rely on nature, their profession is hunting and warrior known as They practice jhum cultivation which is the most common agricultural tradition.
The most popular food of the Garo tribes is rice with capsicum, onion and salt.
Garo literature mainly transferred from generation to generation and one place to another orally. Most of the oral tradition now become the element of Garo literature
Greatest among Garo festivals is the Wangala, usually celebrated in October or November, is thanksgiving after harvest in which Saljong, the god who provides mankind with Nature’s bounties and ensures their prosperity, is honor.

Khasi Tribe of Meghalaya:

According to the 2011 Census of India, over 1.72 million Khasi lived in Meghalaya in the districts of East Khasi Hills, West Khasi Hills, South West Khasi Hills, Ri-Bhoi, West Jaintia Hills and East Jaintia Hills. In Assam, their population reached 35,000.
They are the largest tribal group of North eastern region. Khasis are known with a number of names in different parts of Meghalaya.
The Khasi people of the War sub-tribe designed and built the famous living root bridgesof the Cherrapunji
As a religion they follow Christianity (85%), Ka Niam Khasi (10%), Hinduism (3%), and Islam (2%)
The Khasis are, for the most part, Their social organisation does not favour other forms of marriage; therefore, deviation from this norm is quite rare. Young men and women are permitted considerable freedom in the choice of mates. Potential marriage partners are likely to have been acquainted before betrothal.
The traditional political structure of the Khasi community was democratic in nature. The Khasis consisted of ‘native states’ which would congregate during dorbars or sessions and come to a decision regarding any dispute or problems that would arise in the community much like the Panchayati Raj prevalent in most Indian States

Jaintia Tribe of Meghalaya:

Jaintias too reside in the foot hills of Jaintia Hills from where they collect their name.
These are a type of Khasi tribe which further includes Bhoi in the northern Meghalaya; Khynriam in the central Meghalaya; Pnar of the Jaintia hills; War in the southern Meghalaya.
Achiks are another group of Garo tribes who comprise one third of Meghalaya’s tribal community.

Geographical location of Meghalaya

January 15, 2018October 4, 2024 by rawan239

Geographical location of Meghalaya

The state of Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is geographically known as the “Meghalaya Plateau” or the “Shillong Plateau”. The area is made of the oldest rock-formations. Meghalaya consists of the Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills along with their outliers formed by the Assam ranges. It is the detached north-eastern extension of the Peninsular India. Part of it lies buried under the alluvium deposited by the Ganga-Brahmaputra system of rivers. This gap is known as Malda gap (between Raj Mahal hills/Chhota Nagpur and the Shillong Plateau).

Meghalaya Plateau’s elevation varies between 150 meters to 1961 meters above sea level. The Plateau is highly dissected and has irregular terrain in the western and northern side. The southern side is marked by a continuous escarpment with steep slopes. The broken hills and ranges in the north are not of a well defined boundary.

The western part of the plateau or the Garo hills has an elevation of 600m above sea level. The most important relief feature of this part of the plateau is the Tura range with its highest point at Nokrek 1515 meters above sea level. The central and the eastern part of the plateau or the Khasi and the Jaintia hills district play prominent senile topography. This part of the plateau is characterised by the presence of many peneplained surfaces, flat-topped hills and numerous river valleys. The central upland zone is the most important relief feature of the area and covers more than one-third of the area, east of the Garo hills. The highest point of this part of this plateau and that of the entire state is the Shillong peak whose elevation is about 1965m above sea level. Geographical location of Meghalaya

In the Garo hills, the important rivers of the northern system from west to east are the Kalu, Ringgi, Chagua, Ajagar, Didram, Krishnai and Dudnai. Of these only the Krishnai and Kalu are navigable. The important rivers of the southern system are Daring, Sanda, Bandra, Bhogai, Dareng and Simsang. Simsang is the largest river in the Garo hills and navigable only for about 30 Km. other navigable rivers are Nitai and the Bhupai.

In the central and eastern section of the plateau the important northward flowing rivers are Umkhri, Digaru and Umiam and the south-flowing rivers are Kynchiang (Jadukata), Mawpa, Umiew or Barapani, Myngot and Myntdu.

Relief and structure of Meghalaya

January 15, 2018September 26, 2024 by rawan239

Relief and structure of Meghalaya

Meghalaya is an upland area formed by a detached block of the Deccan plateau. Its summits vary in elevation from 4,000 to 6,000 feet (1,220 to 1,830 metres). The Garo Hills in the west rise abruptly from the Brahmaputra River valley to about 1,000 feet (300 metres) and then merge with the Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, adjacent highland systems that form a single massif of tablelands separated by a series of eastward-trending ridges. The southern faces of the plateau, overlooking the Bangladesh lowlands, is particularly steep.

Meghalaya Plateau belongs to the part of Super Continent of Gondwanaland, i.e., the Peninsular table land, but is detached from the latter by the intervening spread of the alluvium of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The structural history of the region reveals several phases of erosion, sedimentation, diastrophism, intrusion, movements of land and sea, and emission.

The plateau is mainly made up of rocks of the pre-Cambrian age. The pre-Tertiary and Tertiary rocks occur above these rocks on its western and southern margins. Stratigraphically the rocks of the plateau belong to five broad geological formations, namely the Archaean gneissic complex, the Shillong group of rocks, the lower Gondwana, the Sylhet traps, and Cretaceous – Tertiary – Quarternary Sediment.

The Archaean-gneissic complex occupies the central and northern parts of Meghalaya Plateau. The rocks include gneiss, granite, quartzites, schists, etc. The Shillong group of rocks lying unconformably over the gneissic complex, occurs in the central and eastern parts of the plateau These include phylite, quartzites, schists and conglomerates.

The lower Gondwana rocks are found in the western part of Garo Hills which include pebble beds, sandstones and shale. The Sylhet trap is exposed along the southern border of the Khasi Hills in an east-west direction, and rests unconformably over the eroded pre-Cambrian basement rocks. These rocks are predominantly basalt, rhyolite and acid tuffs.

The Garo Hills region of the State, in its greater portion, is formed of gneissic rocks overlaid by sandstones and 1 conglomerates of Cretaceous-Tertiary system.

The sediments of this system of rocks are known as the Garo group in the region. This group of rocks is again divided into the Simsang, Baghmara and the Chengapara formations. The Simsang is the oldest formation in the Garo group which lies conformably over the Kopili series (the youngest formation of the Jaintia group of Cretaceous – Tertiary sediments), and consists of siitstone and sandstone.

the Baghmara formation includes sand, pebble, conglomerates and clay which lie conformably over the Simsang formation. The Chengapara formation consists of sand, siitstone and clay. On the top of these Cretaceous-Tertiary formations rests limestone of Numulitic age, while sandstones of upper Tertiary origin form low hiiis along the Mymensing border. Relief and structure of Meghalaya

The Khasi Hills are located east of the Garo Hills. The other Khasi tribes did not have princes but their twenty petty states (hima), and sometimes even smaller tribal divisions, are led by one or two Chiefs -selected in various ways- usually styled Siem, Syiem. The names of these chieftainships are : Bhawal, Cherra (or Sohra; capital Cherrapunji), Dwara (capital Hat Dwara), Jirang, Khyri(e)m (capital Cherrapunjee, under a Radja), Langrin, Lungiong, Maharam, Malai Sohmat, Marriw, Mawdon, Mawiang, Mawlong, Mawphlang, Mylliem (including Shillong city, the colonial capital of all Tribal Assam), Nobosohphoh, Noglwai, Nongkhlaw, Nongspung, Nongstoin, Pamsanggut, Rambrai, Shella, Sohiong. or Sardar .

The Jaintia Hills are located further to the east from the Khasi Hills. The twelve Chiefs of the elaka (tribal province) of the Jaintia, a Khasi subtribe of the) Pantars = Syntengs tribes, are styled Dolloi, and the land is called after them in Khasi: KA RI KHADAR DOLLOI ‘Land of 12 Tribal Chiefs‘) – they are in Nartiang itself (see the Raja, uniquely also styled, as premier Chief: U Kongsong), and in Amwi, Jowai, Lakadong, Mynso, Nongbah, Nongjngi, Nongphyllut, Nongtallang, Raliang, Shangpung, Sutnga (see below; also cited as seat of a Syiem) Above them is the only true princely ruler of the area, the Raja of Jaintiapur.

His winter capital is now in Bangladesh, with his summer residence shifted from Sutnga (where the family started as Syiems) to Nartiang; also a palace in the commercial center Borghat. The Jaintia Hills used to be a part of the Jaintia Hills District. The district has been bifurcated into two separate districts,namely, East Jaintia Hills and West Jaintia Hills on 31 July 2012.

Schedule Tribe of Meghalaya

October 22, 2017September 24, 2024 by rawan239

Schedule Tribe of Meghalaya

Based on 2011 Census total popultaion of India is 121.08 Crore out of which ST population is 10.45 Crore (8.6%) .
The tribal communities in India are enormously diverse and heterogeneous. There are wide ranging diversities among them in respect of languages spoken, size of population and mode of livelihood.
The number of communities that find their place in the list of the Schedule of the Indian constitution is reflective of this diversity. The Government of India, in its Draft National Tribal Policy, 2006 records 698 Scheduled Tribes in India.
As per the Census of India 2011, the number of individual groups notified as Scheduled Tribes is 705.
Schedule Tribe of Meghalaya represent the inhabitants of Meghalaya who reside in the foothills as well as within the mountain ranges of Garo, Khasi and Jaintia.
The origin of these tribes can be traced from the Tibeto-Burman race and Proto Austroloid Monkhmer race. While the Garos can be traced as the descendents of Tibeto-Burman race, the Khasis and the Jaintias are claimed to have belonged to the Proto Austroloid Monkhmer race.
Along with this there are a number of tribes like the Bhois, Khynriams and the Wars who reside in the northern, southern and central parts of Meghalaya.
Largely the tribal groups follow Christianity though the state follows all the 3 religions namely Hinduism, Buddhism as well as Christianity.
Schedule Tribe of Meghalaya are distinctly marked for their social structure. The traditional dress of Meghalaya is known as ‘Jymphong’ which is often worn during the festivals and ceremonies.
The tribal society of Meghalaya primarily depends on subsistence agriculture.

In According to 2011 Census and Ministry of Tribal Affiars Reports the Tribal Polpulation of Meghalaya

Total Population of Meghalaya	29,66,889
Total Population of ST in Meghalaya	25,55,861
Percentage of ST population on Meghalaya	86.1
% STs in the State to total ST population in India	2.4
Sex Ratio in STs (Gender Composition of Scheduled Tribe Population)	1013
Literacy Rates of ST Population in State	74.4%

Total Schedule Tribe of Meghalaya that included in Constiturional List of Scheduled tribe by Government of India through President order with Name like

Chakma
Dimasa, Kachari
Garo
Hajong
Hmar
Khasi, Jaintia, Synteng, Pnar, War,
Bhoi, Lyngngam
Any Kuki tribes, including:-
1. Biate, Biete
2. Changsan
3. Chongloi
4. Doungel
5. Gamalhou
6. Gangte
7. Guite
8. Hanneng
9. Haokip, Haupit
10. Haolai
11. Hengna
12. Hongsungh
13. Hrangkhwal, Rangkhol
14. Jongbe
15. Khawchung
16. Khawathlang, Khothalong
17. Khelma
18. Kholhou
19. Kipgen
20. Kuki
21. Lengthang
22. Lhangum
23. Lhoujem
24. Lhouvun
25. Lupheng
26. Mangjel
27. Misao
28. Riang
29. Sairhem
30. Selnam
31. Singson
32. Sitlhou
33. Sukte
34. Thado
35. Thangngeu
36. Uibuh
37. Vaiphei
Lakher
Man (Tai Speaking)
Any Mizo (Lushai) tribes
Mikir
Any Naga tribes
Pawi
Synteng
Boro Kacharis
Koch
Raba, Rava

State List of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups

PVTGs, currently including 75 tribal groups, have been identified as such on the basis of the following criteria:

forest-dependent livelihoods,
pre-agricultural level of existence,
stagnant or declining population,
low literacy rates
a subsistence-based economy.

As currently there is no tribal group included in this list.

Sixth Scheduled of Consstitution which govern these tribes

allotment, occupation, or the setting apart of land, other than reserved forests, for the purpose of agricultural or grazing or for residential or other non-agricultural purposes or for any other purpose likely to promote the interests of the inhabitants of any village or town (Provided that nothing in such laws shall prevent the compulsory acquisition of any land, whether occupied or unoccupied for public purpose)
management of any forest not being a Reserved Forest
use of any canal or water course for purpose of agriculture
regulation of the practice of jhum or any other form of shifting cultivation
establishment of village or town committees or Councils and their powers
any other matter relating to village or town administration, including village and town police, public health and sanitation
appointment of succession of chiefs or headmen
inheritance of property
marriage and divorce
social custom
The entire State of Meghalaya except Shillong area is covered under the provisions of the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. Meghalaya has three Autonomous District Councils under the Sixth Schedule of the Constitution. These are –

Khasi Hills Autonomous District Council (KHADC),
Garo Hills Autonomous District Council (GHADC),
and the Jaintia Hills Autonomous District Council (JHADC).

Major Tribal Group of Meghalaya

Garo Schedule Tribe of Meghalaya:

The Garos are mainly distributed over the Kamrup, Goalpara and Karbi Anglong districts of Assam, Garo Hills and few in Khasi Hills in Meghalaya and Dimapur (Nagaland State), substantial numbers, about 200,000 are found in greater Mymens ingh ( Tangail, Jamalpur, Sherpore, Netrakona, Mymensingh) and capital Dhaka, Gazipur, Sirajgonj, Rangpur, Sunamganj, Sylhet, Moulovibazar districts of Bangladesh. It is estimated that total Garo population in India and Bangladesh together is about 1 million.
They originally belong to the Bodo family from the Tibetan-Burmese race; also reside in the plains of Assam and Bangladesh.
The Garo language belongs to the Bodo–Garo branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family.
The Garos are one of the few remaining matrilineal societies in the world. The individuals take their clan titles from their mothers. Traditionally, the youngest daughter (nokmechik) inherits the property from her mother. Sons leave the parents’ house at puberty, and are trained in the village bachelor dormitory (nokpante). After getting married, the man lives in his wife’s house. Garos are only a matrilinear society, but not matriarchal. While the property is owned by women, the men govern the society and domestic affairs and manage the property. This provides security to Garo women.
Like other tribes in Meghalaya these tribes too follow maternal lineage in case of inheritance of property and enjoy all kind of vegetarian well as non-vegetarian food in case of regional delicacies.
The Garos rely on nature, their profession is hunting and warrior known as They practice jhum cultivation which is the most common agricultural tradition.
The most popular food of the Garo tribes is rice with capsicum, onion and salt.
Garo literature mainly transferred from generation to generation and one place to another orally. Most of the oral tradition now become the element of Garo literature
Greatest among Garo festivals is the Wangala, usually celebrated in October or November, is thanksgiving after harvest in which Saljong, the god who provides mankind with Nature’s bounties and ensures their prosperity, is honor.

Khasi Schedule Tribe of Meghalaya:

According to the 2011 Census of India, over 1.72 million Khasi lived in Meghalaya in the districts of East Khasi Hills, West Khasi Hills, South West Khasi Hills, Ri-Bhoi, West Jaintia Hills and East Jaintia Hills. In Assam, their population reached 35,000.
They are the largest tribal group of North eastern region. Khasis are known with a number of names in different parts of Meghalaya.
The Khasi people of the War sub-tribe designed and built the famous living root bridgesof the Cherrapunji.
As a religion they follow Christianity (85%), Ka Niam Khasi (10%), Hinduism (3%), and Islam (2%)
The Khasis are, for the most part, Their social organisation does not favour other forms of marriage; therefore, deviation from this norm is quite rare. Young men and women are permitted considerable freedom in the choice of mates. Potential marriage partners are likely to have been acquainted before betrothal.
The traditional political structure of the Khasi community was democratic in nature. The Khasis consisted of ‘native states’ which would congregate during dorbars or sessions and come to a decision regarding any dispute or problems that would arise in the community much like the Panchayati Raj prevalent in most Indian States

Jaintia Schedule Tribe of Meghalaya :

Jaintias too reside in the foot hills of Jaintia Hills from where they collect their name.
These are a type of Khasi tribe which further includes Bhoi in the northern Meghalaya; Khynriam in the central Meghalaya; Pnar of the Jaintia hills; War in the southern Meghalaya.
Achiks are another group of Garo tribes who comprise one third of Meghalaya’s tribal community.

Soils of Meghalaya

October 22, 2017September 17, 2024 by rawan239

Soils of Meghalaya

The soils of the hills are derived from gneissic complex parent materials; they are dark brown to dark reddish-brown in colour, varying in depth from 50-200 cm.
The texture of soils varies from loamy to fine loamy.
The soils of the alluvial plains adjacent to the northwest and southern plateau are very deep, dark brown to reddish-brown in colour and sandy-loam to silty-clay in texture.
Soils of Meghalaya are rich in organic carbon, which is a measure of nitrogen supplying potential of the soil, deficient in available phosphorous and medium to low in available potassium.
The reaction of the soils varies from acidic (pH 5.0 to 6.0) to strongly acidic (pH 4.5 to 5.0).
Most of the Soils of Meghalaya occurring on higher altitudes under high rainfall belt are strongly acidic due to intense leaching.
Base saturation of these soils is less than 35 %.
These Soils of Meghalaya are not suitable for intensive crop production.
There is not much difference in fertility classes of the Soils of Meghalaya .
Four Soils of Meghalaya fertility classes, namely, High Low Medium (HLM), High Medium Medium (HMM), Medium Medium Low (MML), Medium Low Medium (MLM) have been established from the soil test data so far compiled in the Soil Testing Laboratory of the State.
Regarding micronutrient status, it has been observed that almost all the acid soils of the North-Eastern region of the country are deficient in available Boron (B) and Molybdenum (Mo).
Acid soils of Meghalaya are rated low in available B and Mo.
Total Zinc, Copper and Manganese contents of these soils vary from 10.00 to 17.25, 17.00 to 71.00 and 110 to 770 ppm (parts per million), respectively and DIPA (Diethylene Triamine Penta Acetic Acid) extractable zinc, copper and manganese contents of these soils ranges from 0.72 to 3.20,n 0.6 to 2.8 and 3.0 to 162.0 ppm respectively.
A study conducted by the Indian council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Complex, Shillong revealed that about 40% of the soils of the state contain micronutrients below the critical level.

Major Soils of Meghalaya

The climate, rock structure, slope and relief within the State differs from place to place and thereby brings heterogeneity in the composition and character of soil in the region.
Broadly, the soils of Meghalaya are of three types,

Red loain or Hills soils,
The Lateritic soils,
New and old alluviums.

Red loain or Hill Soils

The red loamy soils are found all along the foot hills and sub-mountain fringes of the region.
But, these soils are predominant in central upland of Khasi-Jaintia Hills, where the soil is mostly sandy because of the sandstone outcrops, whereas in parts of Ri-Jaintia area the soil tends to be silty.
They are also rich in organic matter which again tends to be more in higher altitudes because of low temperature.
The soils on the central, upland region have high moisture content.
Though the humus content is high, it is devoid of base minerais like calcium, potassium, sodium, etc., except being rich in iron oxides.

Lateritic Soils

Towards the western part of the central uplands, hill soils are gradually replaced by lateritic soils.
These hill soils being acidic in nature, have their significance in being suitable for the cultivation of fruits and potatoes and in areas of hill slopes and terraces for the cultivation of rice.
The southern War Country is practically devoid of any soil cover because of excessive rain.
The sandstones being disintegrated constantly by rain make the soil, if there is any, extremely sandy.
Towards the lower part, where the slope becomes t gentler, soil tends to be slightly silty to clay.
Further down, near the border of Bangladesh, lateritic soils occur in small 60 fringes.
These soils are highly leached, poor in plant nutrition and acidic in reaction, and thus they do not hold a favourable base for agricultural purposes.
Along the northern face of the central upland (Bhot Country) lateritic soil is found.
These soils varying from sandy to silty loam (especially on flat ri’ler valleys) are very much acidic in character and are highly leached.
Because of extensive Jhum cultivation practised here, the area does not contain any thick and tall forest.
In the western section of the Garo Hills regions for major part of surface area, the soil cover is lateritic, varying in nature from loam to silty loam (on the river banks and floodplains).
Further west, nearer to the boarder, lateritic soil occurs on the high ground, but the plains have silty loam to older alluvium.
Along the border areas, the soil is predominantly alluvial being both older and younger.
The lateritic soils become workable only after rains and by heavy application of organic matter which may increase the fertility of the soil.

Alluvial Soils

The alluvial soils, on the other hand, have a wider use by human being, since this type of soil is suitable for cultivation of rice, fruits and vegetables.
These soils lack in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. However, they are generally rich in potash and lime.
The soil profile has no stratification.
Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated.
In certain areas, these soils are covered with unproductive wind-borne soil called Loess.
The alluvial soils vary in nature from sandy loam to clay.
The colour of the alluvial soils varies from the light grey to ash grey depending on the depth of the deposition, the texture of the materials, and the time taken for attaining maturity.

Soil Conservation Policy of Soils of Meghalaya

Meghalaya soil conservation policy is based on the National Land Use Policy in which land has been described as a mix of soil, water, flora and fauna.
As per the policy, the main aim of soil conservation in Meghalaya is to develop and maintain the productivity of the land for agricultural purpose as well as for the management of forest.
The other aims behind soil conservation at Meghalaya is to :
Prevent droughts and floods by sustaining a balanced relationship between land and water cycle.
Checking destruction of watersheds from sedimentation, deforestation, land degradation, hydrologic deterioration and soil erosion.
Secure the employment in rural areas by creating employment opportunities.
Developing and maintaining spoiled land areas, wastelands and fallows so as to meet the growing demands of land for various sectors.
Hence to raise awareness for soil conservation around Meghalaya, the state government has set up a Soil and Water Conservation Department that looks after soil conservation in Meghalaya. The department have initiated the following programs in this regard :

Jhum Control Programs: It looks after soil deterioration due to jhum or bun cultivation. The program lays stress on arranging a permanent settlement of jhummia family.
Watershed Management Programs: The program aims at using the land and vegetation resources for the optimum production at some selective micro watersheds.
Soil Conservation Programs: The program aims at removing the risks of soil erosion, land degradation, etc. The farmers have to take up the faulty farming practices.

For soil conservation of Meghalaya, measures such as erosion control, afforestation, terracing and reclamation, water conservation and distribution, water harvesting and conservation of farm ponds are taken up.
Meghalaya soil conservation would thereby increase the productivity of the land thereby generating more revenue for the state economy.

Climate of Meghalaya

October 22, 2017September 17, 2024 by rawan239

Climate of Meghalaya

Meghalaya is at the unique confluence of the Indo-Malayan, an Indo-Chinese and Indian bio-geographical region coupled with its physiographic has generated a profusion of habitats, which harbours diverse biota with high level of endemism.
Meghalaya’s economy is closely tied to its natural-resource-base and climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, water, and forestry.
That is the reason; the state faces a major threat from the projected changes in climate.
Crucial sectors in state like agriculture, water resources, health, sanitation, and rural development are likely to be affected by climate change.
State’s population primarily depends on climate sensitive sectors like agriculture and forestry for livelihood.
The highly dispersed and the vulnerable population segment of the state is poorly equipped to cope effectively with the adversities of climate change due to low capabilities, weak institutional mechanisms, and lack of access to adequate resources
Meghalaya emerged as a full-fledged state within the union of India on 21st Jan 1972.
It is tucked in the North East of India, covering an area of 22489 sq. km.
The State lies within 25 degree 1’ and 26 degree 5’ North latitudes and 85 degree 49’ and 92 degree 52’ East Longitudes.
The temperature range is approximately 2 degree centigrade to 36 degree centigrade depending upon the altitude ranging between 300 mts above mean sea level (MSL) to 2000 mts above MSL.
Meghalaya is amongst the highest rainfall areas in the world, predominantly mountainous, lying between the Brahmaputra valley in the North and the Surma valley (Bangladesh) in the South.

Climate of Meghalaya plateau

Climate of Meghalaya plateau is influenced by elevation and distribution of physical relief. On the basis of weather condition, the Meghalaya plateau has 4 distinct seasons:
They are

The rainy season from May to early October.
The cool season from early October to November.
The cold season from December to February.
The warm season or hot season from March to April.

In this period the entire plateau witness strong winds. This is due to northward migration of jet streams from the Gangetic plain to Tibetan plateau and development of low pressure in the Tibetan plateau at this time of the year.
The western part of the Garo hills is relatively lower in elevation as compared to Khasi and Jaintia hills. Garo hills experienced higher temperature conditions and humidity from February to October. April and May are the warmest months and January is the coldest month. The nature of elevation and slope has also influenced the distribution of rainfall. The rainfall is heaviest in the south-eastern Garo hills and decreases in the central regions and in the north.
The Khasian Jaintia hills experience a moderate climate because of higher elevation. Warm and humid conditions are prevalent in the foothills region in the south and sub-montane region in the north and central uplands. The plateau experiences a temperature of 24 degree centigrade throughout the year.
The southern parts of the plateau have the Cherrapunji -Mawsynram region. It receives the heaviest rainfall, an annual average of 12670 mm. This is due to its location at the head of Bangladesh plains. The south west monsoon strikes these margins as it rises abruptly from the plains. The vertical movement of this moist monsoon streams precipitate heavily in the escarpment region. This type of rainfall is known as orographic rainfall.
The Khasi and Jaintia hills receive an average of 7700 mm of rainfall and lies in the rain shadow area. Cherrapunji and Mawsynram lying about 55 Km south of Shillong receives an annual rainfall of about 14,000 mm which is the highest amount of rainfall in the world.

Climate of Meghalaya and Rainfall

The Climate of Meghalaya varies with the altitude.
The Climate of Meghalaya of Khasi and Jaintia Hills is uniquely pleasant and bracing.
It is neither too warm in summer nor too cold in winter, but over the plains of Garo Hills, the Climate of Meghalaya is warm and humid, except in winter.
True to its name, the Meghalaya sky seldom remains free of clouds.
The average annual rainfall is about 1,150 cm.
Flood affected areas are mostly on the low altitude areas, bordering Assam and the international border (India-Bangladesh).
Flash floods have become a regular feature in these areas, due to massive deforestation, unchecked jhum cultivation.
The flood water carries huge amount of hill sand, stone, logs and trees, which are deposited in agricultural fields due to inundation of banks in the foot hills, thus causing immense damage to crops.
The key to the health of the farm sector in the state lies in the health of the forest cover in the state.
Every peak, every square inch of the upper range of the hills need to be under mixed forest cover to protect the soil from leaching and erosion to help regulate and decrease the fury of streams and rivulets during the monsoon season.
Vegetation also help to retain soil moisture and ooze it out during the lean winter months to balance vegetative stress caused by mono cropping in the valley; to bestow various other advantage to help maintain the fragile eco-balance.
This will ensure continuous cultivation of crops in the farm sector.

Climate Change and Climate of Meghalaya

Climate sensitivity of the state comes from the fragile-ecosystem of the region where it is located extending to about 22,429 sq. kms.
The varied physiological features of the state and the altitudinal differences gives rise to varied types of climate ranging from near tropical to temperate and alpine which is likely to be disturbed considerably under the impact of weather variability.
The vulnerability of the state to water-induced disasters because of its location in the eastern Himalayan periphery, fragile geo-environmental setting and economic underdevelopment is likely to poses considerable threat to the resilience of poorer and vulnerable community.
The powerful hydrological and monsoon regime of the region, especially the Brahmaputra and the Barak (Meghna) river system which are figures out as resources to the state can also turn out to a source of vulnerability.
Meghalaya’s economy is closely tied to its natural-resource-base and climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, water, and forestry.
Climate change as projected might result in increasing mean annual temperature, variability of rainfall pattern and seasonal shift in weather pattern which is likely to result into destructive effect on the agriculture, the mainstay vocation in the state.
Moreover the highly dispersed and the vulnerable population segment of the state is poorly equipped to cope effectively with the adversities of climate change due to low capabilities, weak institutional mechanisms, inability to diversify to other livelihood activities and lack of access to adequate resources to enable the community to recover from climate shocks.
The climate change action plan is thus formulated to strategize adaptation and mitigation initiative towards emission stabilization and enhancing the livelihood resilience and adaptive capacity of the poor and vulnerable section of the society.
Climate Change is a multi-objective problem therefore the vulnerability and adaptive capacities are diverse and varies from state to state and based on several sectoral and cross sectoral parameters.
Sectoral parameters include key sectors of the state’s economy and cross sectoral factors include
1. Poverty
2. Inequality and social discrimination over property rights and
3. Access to resources
4. Social attrition/migration,
5. Unequal and unsustainable competition for scarce natural resources.

Rainfall variability

Majority of the districts of Meghalaya have experienced an increase in precipitation in the past 100 years .
However the two western districts, West Garo Hills and East Garo Hills showed a decrease in precipitation of 3.72 mm/day and 6.85 mm/day respectively.
This is a very high decrease and is of concern.
The West Khasi Hills, located in the central region of the state has the highest increase in precipitation, about 6.01 mm/day.
This is also a very high increase and may lead to flooding if the trend continues.
The precipitation trend shows high variability with West Khasi Hills showing an increase in precipitation of 6.01 mm/day and West Garo Hills showing a decrease of 6.85 mm/day

Temperature variability

The analysis of the meteorological measurements of temperature for Meghalaya shows a steady warming trend in both the minimum and maximum temperatures.
The spatial pattern of minimum and maximum temperature trend over the past 100 years shows an overall increase in the region.
The western part of the state exhibited an increase in minimum temperature (West Garo Hills, East Garo Hills) when compared to the eastern part of the state.
The central parts of the state, West Khasi Hills, South Garo Hills, East Khasi Hills exhibited a high increase in the maximum temperature (about 1.2 degree Centigrade), when compared to Western and Eastern districts.
Overall, the trend of last 100 years shows that an increase in minimum temperature is slightly higher in absolute terms than the increase in maximum temperature.