Geographical condition and distribution of major crops, like,Rice, Wheat,Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Rubber, Tea and Coffee

June 4, 2017September 20, 2024 by PSC Notes

Rice

The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas (i.e. north-eastern India).Rice is a nutritional staple food which provides instant energy as its most important component is carbohydrate (starch). Rice is grown in almost all the states of India. The main rice producing states are Tamilnadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhatisgarh, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujrat and Kashmir Valley. The rice growing areas in the country can be broadly grouped into five regions as discussed below :

North-Eastern Region:This region comprises of Assam and North eastern states. In Assam rice is grown in the basin of Brahmnaputra river. This region receives very heavy rainfall and rice is grown under rain fed condition.
Eastern Region This region comprises of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In this region rice is grown in the basins of Ganga and Mahanadi rivers and has the highest intensity of rice cultivation in the country. This region receives heavy rainfall and rice is grown mainly under rain fed conditions.

iii. Northern Region: This region comprises of Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The region experiences low winter temperature and single crop of rice from May-July to September-December is grown.

Western Region: This region comprises of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Rice is largely grown under rain fed condition during June-August to October – December.
Southern Region: This region comprises of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Rice is mainly grown in deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery rivers and the non-deltaic rain fed area of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is grown under irrigated condition in deltaic tracts.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a Rabi or winter crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the beginning of summer. Normally (in north India) the sowing of wheat begins in the month of October-November and harvesting is done in the month of March-April. This is the staple food of millions of people particularly in the northern and north-western regions of India. Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly as a rabi or winter crop.

The main regions of wheat production in India are U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,Maharashtra. U.P., Punjab and Haryana together produce more than 66% of the total wheat of the country.

Cotton

Cotton requires a daily minimum temperature of 16ºC for germination and 21ºC to 27ºC for proper crop growth. During the fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from 27ºC to 32ºC and cool nights are needed. The sowing season of cotton varies considerably from tract to tract and is generally early (April-May) in northern India where it is mostly irrigated. It is delayed on proceeding to down south. It is cultivated largely under rainfed or dryland conditions. An annual rainfall of atleast 50 centimetre distributed through-out the growing season is required for good yield. It is mainly raised during tropical monsoon season, although in southern India it is cultivated during late-monsoon season in winter. The cotton-picking period from mid September to November must have bright sunny days to ensure a good quality.

India has the largest area under cultivation and third largest producer of cotton next only to China and the USA. Within the country two third of total area and production is shared by four states. The main states for cotton production are Panjab, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

Jute

Jute is a crop of humid tropical climates. It thrives well in areas with well distributed rainfall of 2,500 mm spread over vegetative growth period of the crop with no cloudiness. Locations with a mean rainfall of <1,000 mm, incessant rainfall and waterlogging are not suitable for its cultivation.

West Bengal, Bihar and Assam grow jute extensively.

Sugercane

Sugarcane belongs to the grass family. It has a thick jointed stem, Which contains the cane sugar, The juice can be taken as a drink or made into sugar, jaggery or khandsari. . The by-products of sugar are very useful. Bagasse is used to make paper, cattle feed, fuel for mills-and cardboard; molasses for power alcohol. Fertilizers, yeast and rum; and press mud of wax. and shoe polish. It supports the pesticide and fertilizer industries. Sugar factories provide employment to over a million ‘workers. India is the second largest sugarcane producer in the world.

Climatic and soil conditions which favour the cultivation of sugarcane are:-

Temperature: 20°C-30°C. Temperature above 50°C arrests its growth and temperature below 20°C slows down its growth.
Rain: 75-120cms. It cannot withstand frost. For ripening it needs a cool dry season.
Soil: A medium heavy loam is ideal-In northern India it is cultivated on clay loams and alluvial soil while in south India it is cultivated on brown or reddish loams, black cotton soil and laterites.

Leading sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab.Haryana, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

Rubber

Rubber tree is sturdy, quick growing and tall. It grows on many types of soil provided the soil is deep and well drained. A warm humid equitable climate (2 1′ to 35′) and a fairly distributed rainfall of not less than 200 c m are necessary for the cultivation of rubber crop.

Kerala (accounts for 90% of the total area under rubber), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andamanand Nicobar Islands. Parts of West Bengal. Orrisa., Maharashtra, Karnataka and’N.E parts of India are potential regions for rubber-cultivation.

Tea

Commercial Tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea plants were discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam.

Climatic conditions required for the growing of tea are

Temp: 13-35°C. Average of 25°C is suitable.
Humidity: – High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog promote growth if healthy leaves.
Rainfall: Annual rainfalI (range) 150-350cm (well distributed)
Soil- Well drained mountain soil, light, loamy, porous rich in nitrogen and iron/ laterite like the soil found in Assam

Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than 50% of tea production of India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second largest producer of tea where tea is mostly grown in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts. Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted to Nilgiri hills.

Coffee

Commercial cultivation of coffee was started by British entrepreneurs in South India during 1820’s.

Most of India’s coffee is grown in three Southern states: Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, the first two account for nearly 90 percent of total production. Much of the coffee in Kerala and Karnataka is grown in the Western Ghats, a mountain chain that runs parallel to the coast line and about 100 miles inland from the Arabian Sea. India exports nearly 70 percent of the coffee it produces. These exports consist mainly of high grade beans from both the Arabica and the Robusta growing regions.

Geographical Requirement for Coffee cultivation are as follows:-

Temperatute:- should be ranging between 15 to 28°C throughout the year. Frost free environment. Direct raysof the sun are harmfui as it.is grown in the shade of trees. In its early stages of growth it needs to be protected from hot.dry winds.
Rainfall:- 125cm- 250 cms throughout the year.
Soil:-. Well drained, weathered volcanic soil, red and laterite soil. The presence of humus is essential. .
Topography:- grows on hill slopes at elevation ranging from 500mts to 1800mts.

Population growth, distribution and density

June 4, 2017September 19, 2024 by PSC Notes

India is the second most populous country in the world next only to China. On March 1, 2011 the total population of India was at 1.247 billion. This accounted for 17.5% of the world’s total population. In other words, about every sixth person in the world there is an Indian. China, the most populous country of the world, is a step ahead of us as every fifth person in the world there is a Chinese. While India possesses only 2.42% of the world’s total land area, she is required to sustain almost 17.5% of the world’s population.

Two components of population growth are: Natural growth: It is analysed by assessing the crude birth and death rates. Induced growth: It is assessed by the volume of inward and outward movement of people in any given area. There are four phases of population growth in India. The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant growth of India’s population. The high birth rate was counterbalanced by high death rate. The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth. The mortality rate started showing downward trend as a result of improvement in general health and sanitation conditions after 1921.

The density of population is expressed as the number of persons per square kilometre. According to 2011 census, the density of population in India is 382 persons per square kilometre. Over the last 100 years density has increased more than four times.

Density and its variation across states can be accessed by the following table:-

State	Area Sq. Km	Density 2011	Density 2001	Density 2011
–	India (Average)	3,287,240	382	324
1	Delhi	1,483	11,320	9,340
2	Chandigarh	114	9,258	7,900
3	Puducherry	490	2,547	2,034
4	Daman and Diu	111	2,191	1,413
5	Lakshadweep	30	2,149	1,895
6	Bihar	94,163	1,106	881
7	West Bengal	88,752	1,028	903
8	Kerala	38,852	860	819
9	Uttar Pradesh	240,928	829	690
10	Dadra and Nagar Haveli	491	700	449
11	Haryana	44,212	573	478
12	Tamil Nadu	130,060	555	480
13	Punjab	50,362	551	484
14	Jharkhand	79,716	414	338
15	Assam	78,438	398	340
16	Goa	3,702	394	364
17	Maharashtra	307,713	365	315
18	Tripura	10,486	350	305
19	Karnataka	191,791	319	276
20	Gujarat	196,244	308	258
21	Andhra Pradesh	275,045	308	277
22	Orissa	155,707	270	236
23	Madhya Pradesh	308,252	236	196
24	Rajasthan	342,239	200	165
25	Uttarakhand	53,483	189	159
26	Chhattisgarh	135,192	189	154
27	Meghalaya	22,429	132	103
28	Manipur	22,327	128	103
29	Himachal Pradesh	55,673	123	109
30	Nagaland	16,579	119	120
31	Sikkim	7,096	86	76
32	Jammu and Kashmir	222,236	56	46
33	Mizoram	21,081	52	42
34	Andaman and Nicobar Islands	8,249	46	43
35	Arunachal Pradesh	83,743	17	13

SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION

October 15, 2015September 19, 2024 by rawan239

SECOND GREEN REVOLUTION

The main objectives of the second Green Revolution are:

(i) To raise agricultural productivity to promote food security

(ii) More emphasis on bio-technology

(iii) To promote sustainable agriculture

(iv) To become self-sufficient in staple food, pulses, oil seeds, and industrial raw material

(v) To increase the per capita income of the farmers and to raise their standard of living.

Development and Utilization Land Resources ie General land use, agricultural land use

June 4, 2017September 16, 2024 by PSC Notes

Land is a finite resource. Land availability is only about 20% of the earth’s surface. Land is crucial for all developmental activities, for natural resources, ecosystem services and for agriculture. Growing population, growing needs and demands for economic development, clean water, food and other products from natural resources, as well as degradation of land and negative environmental impacts are posing increasing pressures to the land resources in many countries of the world.

India covers an area of 32,87,263 sq km. According to area size, it is the seventh largest country of the world after Russia, Canada, China, U.S.A., Brazil and Egypt. This vast size itself is the most important resource. About 30 per cent of area is covered by the mountains which are source of scenic beauty, perennial rivers, home of forests and wildlife. About 43 per cent of land area is plain which is highly suitable for agriculture. Remaining about 27 percent under plateaus is the store house of minerals and metals.

The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records are as follows :

(i) Forests : In India, at present forest areas cover about 76.5 million hectares of land, which is about 23 per cent of the total geographical area. It ranges from about 87 per cent in Andaman & Nicobar Islands to only about 4 percent in Haryana making to range difference of 83 percent. According to our National Forest Policy, 33% of the total geographical area of the country should be under the forest cover to maintain ecological balance.

(ii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses : Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc. are included in this category. An expansion in the secondary and tertiary activitieswould lead to an increase in this category of land-use.

(iii) Barren and Wastelands : The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.

(iv) Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands : Most of this type land is owned by the village ‘Panchayat’ or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes under ‘Common Property Resources’.

(v) Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves(Not included is Net sown Area) : The land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land is privately owned.

(vi) Culturable Waste-Land : Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in this category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices.

(vii) Current Fallow : This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year. Fallowing is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural processes.

(viii) Fallow other than Current Fallow : This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more than a year but less than five years. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it would be categorised as culturable wasteland. (ix) Net Area Sown : The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is known as net sown area.

Green Revolution in India

October 15, 2015September 16, 2024 by rawan239

Green Revolution in India

A term coined to describe the emergence and diffusion of new seeds of cereals.
Norman-e-Borlaug is the Father of Green Revolution in the world, while Dr. M.S. Swami Nathan is known as the Father of Green Revolution in India.
The new cereals were the product of research work and concentrated plant breeding with the objective of creating High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of use to the developing countries.
New varieties of wheat were first bred in Mexico in the 1950s and that of rice, like IR-8 (miracle rice) at the International Rice Research Institute, Manila, (Philippines in the 1960s).
The increase in the yield from the new seeds has been spectacular as during the last forty years, agricultural production, particularly of wheat and rice, has experienced a great spurt and this has been designated as the Green Revolution.
The Green Revolution has been used to mean two different things. Some experts of agriculture use it for referring to a broad transformation of agricultural sector in the developing countries to reduce food shortages.
Others use it when referring to the specific plant improvements, notably the development of HYVs.
Whatsoever the meaning of Green Revolution may be taken as, the adoption and diffusion of new seeds of wheat and rice has been considered as a significant achievement as it offered great optimism.
In fact, these varieties of seeds have revolutionised the agricultural landscape of the developing countries and the problem of food shortage has been reduced.
In India, hybridisation of selected crops, i.e. maize, bajra (bulrush millets), and millets began in 1960.
The Mexican dwarf varieties of wheat were tried out on a selected scale in 1963-64. Exotic varieties of rice such as Taichung Native I were introduced in India in 1964.
The diffusion of HYVs, however, became fully operational in the country in the Kharif season of 1965-66.
The diffusion of the new seeds was mainly in the Satluj-Ganga Plains and the Kaveri Delta.
Subsequently, a number of varieties of wheat and rice were developed by the Indian scientists and adopted by the Indian farmers.

Merits of the High Yielding Varieties

The High Yielding Varieties have certain advantages over the traditional varieties of cereals which are given as under:

Shorter Life Cycle
Economize on Irrigation Water
Generate more Employment

Geographical Constraints in the Adoption of New Seeds

The new seeds are less resistant to droughts and floods and need an efficient management of water, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides.

The conditions required for the good harvest of new seeds have been described below:

Irrigation
Availability of Chemical Fertilisers
Plant Protection Chemicals
- The new seeds are very delicate and highly susceptible to pests and diseases.
- The danger of pests and insects may be reduced by using plant protection chemicals.

The problems of crop disease and pests may also be tackled by timely application of insecticides and pesticides

Capital Constraint

Mechanization

Marketing and Storage Facilities

Extension Service

Human Factor

Environmental and Ecological Implications of Green Revolution

Some of the environmental and ecological problems that emerged out of the cultivation of the High Yielding Varieties are depletion of forests, reduction in pastures, salination, water-logging, depletion of underground water-table, soil erosion, change in the soil chemistry, reduction in bio-diversity, decline in soil fertility, silting of rivers, increase in weeds, emergence of numerous new plant diseases, and health hazards.

An overview of these environmental and ecological problems has been given here.

Salination

The saline and alkaline affected tracts, locally known as kallar or thur in Punjab and kallar or reh in Uttar Pradesh have expanded and increased in area.The problem of salinity and alkalinity can be solved by use of manure (cow dung, compost, and green manure) and by a judicious selection of leguminous crops in the rotation

Waterlogging

Water logging is the other major problem associated with over-irrigation.The progressive and ambitious cultivators of the irrigated areas of these districts have changed their cropping patterns and have introduced rice and wheat in place of bajra, pulses, cotton, and fodder.Repeated irrigation of these crops in the summer and winter seasons have resulted into waterlogged condition, especially along the canals.

Soil erosion
Pollution:
Lowering of the Underground Water-Table:
Deforestation
Noise Pollution:
Health Hazards:

Green Revolution—Achievements, Problems and Prospects

Green Revolution—Achievements

The main achievements of Green Revolution may be summarized as under:

The production and productivity of wheat, rice, maize, and bajra has increased substantially.
India has become almost self-sufficient in the matter of staple foods.
The double cropped area has increased; thereby intensification of the Indian agriculture has increased.
In the areas where Green Revolution is a success, the farmers have moved from subsistent to market oriented economy, especially in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and the plain districts of Uttarakhand (Hardwar and Udhamsinghnagar).
The adoption of High Yielding Varieties under the Green Revolution has generated more rural and urban employment.
Green Revolution has increased the income of farmers and landless labourers, especially that of the big farmers and the semi-skilled rural workers. Thus Green Revolution has increased rural prosperity.
Green Revolution has created jobs in the areas of biological (seed fertilisers) innovations, and repair of agricultural equipments and machinery.

Green Revolution—Problems and Prospects

Depletion of soil owing to the continuous cultivation of soil exhaustive crops like rice and wheat.
Depletion of underground water table due to over-irrigation of more moisture requiring crops like rice and wheat.
Green Revolution has increased the income disparity amongst the farmers.
Green Revolution led to polarization of the rural society. It has created three types of conflicts in the rural community, namely, between large and small farmers, between owner and tenant farmers, between the employers and employees on agricultural farms.
Green Revolution has displaced the agricultural labourers, leading to rural unemployment. The mechanical innovations like tractors have displaced the agricultural labour. 6. Agricultural production in the Green Revolution areas is either stationary or has shown declining trend.
Some valuable agricultural lands have submerged under water (water-logging) or are adversely affected by salinity and alkalinity.
Green Revolution is crop specific. It could not perform well in the case pulses and oil-seeds.
The traditional institution of Jijmani system has broken. Consequently, the barbers, carpenters, iron-smith, and watermen have migrated to the urban areas.
The soil texture, structure, soil chemistry, and soil fertility have changed.
About 60 per cent of agricultural land in the country remains unaffected by Green Revolution.
Green Revolution technologies are scale neutral but not resource neutral.
Punjab feeds the nation but farmers in the state, especially in the Malwa region fall prey to cancer. The take ‘Cancer Train’ to Bikaner for cheap treatment.

Drainage System of India

June 4, 2017September 12, 2024 by PSC Notes

Drainage: Flow of water through well-defined channels. Network of such channels is called a drainage system .
Drainage basin: An area drained by a river and its tributaries.
Watershed: Boundary line separating one drainage basin from other.
River basins are larger watersheds.
Drainage pattern of an area depends on the geological time period, nature and structure of rocks, topography, rocks, slope, amount of water and periodicity of flow.

Important drainage patterns:

Dendritic: Resembling the branches of a tree. Eg. Northern Plain rivers
Radial: Originate from a hill and flow in all directions. Eg. Rivers in Amarkantak
Trellis: Primary tributaries parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles.
Centripetal: Rivers discharge waters from all directions in a lake or depression

A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its catchment area.

Nearly 77 pc of drainage is towards the Bay of Bengal while about 23 pc is towards the Arabian Sea.

The Himalayan Drainage System

Mainly includes the Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra river basins.

Over the plains, rivers of this system change the course often. River Kosi is also known as the ‘sorrow of Bihar’ due to flooding by its frequent change of course by deposition of sediments.

Evolution

Geologists believe that a mighty river called Shivalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire length of the Himalayas some 5-24 million years ago. Over time this got dismembered into the present three major river systems.

The Indus System

Indus river originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in Tibet in the Kailash Mountain range. Known as Singi Khamban (Lion’s mouth) in Tibet. It forms a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in J&K. Enters Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region. Flows only through the Leh distt of J&K.

Smaller tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Zaskar, Nubra, Hunza, Shigar, Gasting, Dras. On right bank: Kabul river, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Viboa and hte Sangar.

Major tributaries: Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum

Jhelum	Origin: Verinag at foot of Pir Pinjal. Flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake. Joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan
Chenab	Origin: Two streams (Chandra and Bhaga) which join at Tandi near Keylong in HP. Largest tributary of Indus. Aka Chandrabhaga. Flows for 1180 KM before entering Pakistan
Ravi	Origin: Kullu hills of HP near Rohtang Pass. Enters Pakistan and joins Chenab near Sarai Sidhu
Beas	Origin: Beas Kund near Rohtang pass. Forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. Meets Satluj near Harike.
Satluj	Origin: Rakas lake near Mansarowar in Tibet. Known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet. Enters India at Ropar. Antecedent river. Bhakra Nangal Project is on this river.

The Ganga System

It is the largest river system in India.

Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district. Here it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda and is known as Ganga hereafter.

Panchprayag

Vishnu Ganga	Joshimath Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga meet to form Alaknanda

Alaknanda	Origin: Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. Consists of Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga.
Yamuna	Origin: Yamnotri glacier on Banderpunch range. Joins Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). RBT: Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken LBT: Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Varuna. Agra canal
Chambal	Origin: Mhow in Malwa plateau. Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam. Famour for Chambal ravines.
Gandak	Origin: In Nepal between Dhaulgiri and Mt. Everest. Enters Ganga plain in Champaran and joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna. Two streams: Kaliganfak and Trishulganga.
Ghaghra	Origin: Glaciers of Mapchachungo Tributaries: Tila, Seti and Beri Deep gorge at Shishpani Sarda (Kali) joint it and meet Ganga at Chhapra.
Kosi	Origin: North of Mt. Everest in Tibet. Tributaties: Son Kosi, Tamur Kosi, Arun Changes course often. Sorrow of Bihar.

Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
Left Bank tributaries (LBT): Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and Mahananda.
Right Bank tributaries (RBT): Son
Discharges into Bay of Bengal near Sagar island.

			Energy Resources of India

35.	Coal	Jharkhand	Jharia, Bokaro, Giridh, karanpura, Ramgarh, Daltonganj,
			Aurangabad, Hutar, Deogarh, Rajmahal
36.		Orissa	Talcher, Rampur
37.		M.P (Former)	Central Indian Coalfields -Singrauli, Sohagpur, Johilla, Umaria
			Satupura Coalfields – Pench, Kanhan, Pathkhera
			North Chhattisgarh – Chirmiri-Kaurasia, Bisrampur, Jhillmili,
			Sonhat, Lakhanpur, Sendurgarh, lakhanpur-Ramkola
			South Chhattisgarh-Hasdo-Arand, Korba, Mand-Raigarh
38.		West Bengal	Raniganj, Darjeeling

39.		Andhra Pr.	Singareni, Kothgundam, Tandur
40.		Maharashtra	Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee, Bander
41.	Tetiary	Meghalaya	Daranggiri, Cherpunji, Laitryngew, Mawlong, Langrin, Pendengru,
	coal		Longoi, Waimong
42.		Assam	Makum, Jaipur, Nazira
43.		Arunachal Pr	Namchuk-Namphuk
44.		J & K	Kalakot, Mohogala, Metka
45.		Rajasthan	Palana (lignite) & Khari
46.	Petroleum	North-East	Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran, Rudrasagar, Galeki, Hugrijan, Nigru,
			Borholla
47.		Gujarat	Ankeleshwar, Kalol, Nawagam, Kosamba, Kathana,
			Barkol,Mehsana, Sanand, Lunej, Aliabet island
48.		Mumbai High	Bombay high, Bassein
49.		East Coast	Narimanam, Kovillapal, Amlapur, Rawa
50.		Other	Jaiselmer, Jwalamukhi Area (Punjab)
51.	Natural	Mumbai	Bombay high, Bassein
52.	Gas	Gujarat	Jagatia, Gogha
53.		Assam	Nahorkatiya & Moran
54.		Tamil Nadu	Neypaltur, Mangamadam, Avadi, Virugambakam
55.		Tripura	Baranura, Atharnure
56.		Rajasthan	Barmer, Charaswala
57.		Arunachal Pr	Non Chick, Mia-Pung, Laptan pung
58.		Himachal Pr	Jwalamukhi, Kangra
59.		West Bengal	Medinipur
60.	Uranium		Jaduguda (Jharkhand), Bhatin, Narwapahar under Uranium
			Corportation in India are the only mines worked at present
61.	Thorium		Beach Sands (Kerala), Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pr, Orissa

DRY FARMING IN INDIA

October 15, 2015September 11, 2024 by rawan239

DRY FARMING IN INDIA

The spread in the regions where the average annual rainfall is less than 75 cm.
rainfall is scanty and uncertain, where hot and dry conditions prevail.
It is not only that the average annual rainfall is low, the variability of rainfall in these areas varies between 25 to 60 per cent.
Agriculture belongs to fragile, high risking and low productive agricultural ecosystem.
The areas in which more than 75 cm of average annual rainfall is recorded are known as the areas of rain-fed agriculture.
In India dry-lands cover about 32 million hectares or about 25 per cent of the total arable land.
The dry farming areas cover the greater parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Moreover, there are small tracts of dry land farming in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, harkhand, Orissa, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
These areas having scanty rainfall and high variability of rainfall are adversely affected by erratic precipitation, frequent droughts, high temperature, and high wind velocity resulting in soil erosion.

Significant Features of Dry Farming

Moisture conservation is basic to dry farming. In order to achieve this objective, the field is ploughed repeatedly, especially during the rainy season.
Sowing of crops in alternate years or fallowing of land after each harvesting of crop. The fallowing of agricultural land helps in the recuperation of soil fertility.
Pulverisation of the soil before sowing.
Regular hoeing and weeding of the crop. Hoeing is generally done before sun-rise so that the night dew may be mixed into the soil to provide moisture to the crops.
Covering of the land with straw to prevent evaporation of the soil moisture and to control soil erosion.
Livestock keeping and dairying are also important allied agricultural activities in the dry farming regions.

Crops

The main crops grown in the dry farming areas are coarse, grains (maize, millets, bajra), pulses, groundnut, oilseeds and fodder.
Though 75 per cent of the total population of dry-farming regions are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture, their per capita income, and standard of living are significantly low.

Main Problems of Dry Farming

The main problems of dry farming agriculture are as under:

Scarcity of precipitation, erratic occurrence of rains leading to famines, droughts, and floods.
The soils, being sandy, lack in humus and organic nutrients.
The dry farming areas are highly vulnerable to soil erosion.
These are low yields per unit area.
In the absence of moisture and irrigation, the use of High Yielding Varieties and new technology is not possible.
Most of the farmers in the dry farming regions being poor are not able to apply the new costly inputs.
These areas are not having the basic irrigation and other infrastructural facilities, like roads, marketing and storage

Strategy for Development

As stated earlier, agriculture is a highly vulnerable occupation in the scanty rainfall recording areas in which dry farming is practiced.
In dry farming areas, water harvesting should be done. The government and other non-government agencies should provide the necessary guidance to the people.
Seeds of food crops which are drought resistant should be provided to the farmers at a subsidized rate.
Efforts should be made to check soil erosion by adopting soil conservation practices.
The farmers should space their crops at a wide gap and there should be regular weeding and hoeing.
Seeds of the quick and short duration maturing crops should be developed.
Cultivation of crops requiring more moisture should be done in the low lying areas, especially in the lower parts of the catchment.
Cotton should be grown only in the areas where rainfall is more dependable or sprinkle irrigation is available.
Soil fertility should be enhanced by applying cow dung and compost manures.
Repeated tilling of the field is required during the rainy season.
Research should be promoted in the dry land farming.

Mineral Resources of India

June 4, 2017September 9, 2024 by PSC Notes

50.	Iron Ore	Chhattisgarh 24 %	Dalli, Rajhra (Durg), Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri
51.		Goa (21%)	Sanquelim, Sanguem, Quepem, Satari, Ponda, Bicholim
52.		Karnataka (20%)	Bellary, Hospet, Sandur
53.		Jharkhand (17 %)	Noamund, Gua
54.		Orissa (15 %)	Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, Badampahar (Mayurbhanj),
			Kiriburu, Meghahataburu, Bonai (Sundargarh).
55.		Maharashtra	Chandrapur, Ratnagiri, Bhandara
56.		Andhra Pr.	Karimnagar, Warangal, Kurnod, Cuddapah, Anantpur di

57.		Tamil Nadu	Tirthmalai, Yadapalli, Killimalai, kanjamalai, & Gondumalai
58.	Copper	M. P (46%)	Balghat (Malanjkhand)
59.		Rajasthan (33%)	Khetri (Jhunjhunu & Alwar)
60.		Jharkhand (21%)	Singhbum
61.	Manganese	Karnataka (38%)	Bellary, North Kanara, Shimoga
62.		Orissa (17%)	Kendujhar, Sundargarh, Koraput, Kalahandi, Bolangir
63.		M.P. (10 %)	Balghat
64.		Maharashtra (8%)	Nagpur & Bhandara
65.	Bauxite	Orissa (44 %)	Koraput, Kalahandi, Sundargarh
66.		Jharkhand (18 %)	Gumla, Lohardaga, Ranchi, Palamau
67.		Maharashtra (13%)	Kolhapur, Ratnagir
68.		Chhattisgarh(11%)	Bastar, Bilaspur, Surguja district
69.		M.P. (11 %)	Mandla, Satna, Jabalpur, Shahdol
70.		Gujarat (8 %)	Jamnagar, Kachchh, Junagarh
71.		Tamil Nadu (4 %)	Salem, Nilgiri
72.	Chromite	Orissa (97 %)	Sukinda, Kendujhar, Dhenkanal ditricts
73.		Karnataka (2.3 %)	Hassan
74.		Maharashtra (%)	Chandrapur
75.		Jharkhand (%)	Purbi & Paschmi Singhbum district
76.		Andhra Pr (%)	Khammam
77.	Lead	Rajasthan (80 %)	Zawar region (Udaipur), Dariba, Rajura
78.		Orissa (11%)
79.		Andhra Pr (8 %)
80.	Zinc	Rajasthan (99 %)	Zawar –a. Pipli khan to Barla khan b. Mochia, Magra, Balaria
81.		Sikkim
82.	Gold	Karnataka (67 %)	Kolar, Hutti gold fields (Raichur), Gulbarga
83.		Jharkhand (26 %)	Subarnarekha, Sona, Sanjai, South koel, Garra rivers
84.		Andhra Pr (7 %)	Ramgiri Gold Fields (Anantapur district)
85.	Silver	Andhra Pr (42 %)
86.		Bihar Jharkhand32
87.		Rajashtan (25 %)	Zawar
88.		Karnataka
89.	Nickel	Orissa	Cuttack, Kyonjhar, & Maiyurbhanj

		Non Metallic Minerals

1.	Limestone	M.P, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
2.	Dolomite	Orissa (Birmitrapur in Sundergarh District-largest in India), M.P & Chattisgarh
3.	Phosphate	Rajasthan (Udaipur) Uttaranchal (Dehradun), M.P. (Jhabua), U.P. (Lalitpur)
4.	Kaolin	Kerala is largest producer.
5.	Mica	Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand (Kodarma-Large) & Rajasthan
6.	Gypsum	Rajasthan & J & K.
7.	Steatite	Rajasthan. It is also called soapstone/ Potstone.
8.	Magnesite	Tamil Nadu

9.	Pyrite	Bihar is sole producer
10.	Graphite	Orissa, Rajasthan
11.	Diamond	M.P. (Panna)
12.	Beryllium	Rajathan, Jharkhand
13.	Salt (NaCl)	Gujarat (60%), Tamil Nadu & Maharashtra
14.	Marble	Rajasthan
15.	Zircon	Beach Sand of Kerala
16.	Kyanite	Singhbum distict in Jharkhand-largest. Used as refractory material
17.	Antimony	Punjab
18.	Asbestos	Karnataka & Rajasthan
19.	Beryllium	Rajasthan
20.	Sulphur	Tamil Nadu
21.	Tin	Bihar, Jharkhand

Indian monsoon, mechanism, onset and retreat

June 4, 2017September 7, 2024 by PSC Notes

The word “monsoon” comes from the Arabic word mausim, meaning season.Monsoons refer to a system of winds in the tropical regions under which the direction of winds is reversed completely between the summer and the winter seasons. Under this system, the winds blow from land to sea in winter and from sea to land in summer. Therefore, most of the rainfall in the regions influenced by the monsoons is received in the summer season while winter season is generally dry.

Due to a higher temperature over the land in summer, a low pressure area develops over the continents and the winds blow from neighbouring oceans towards the land. These winds are of maritime origin and hence cause ample rainfall in summer. On the other hand, the continents become colder than the neighboring oceans in winter. As a result a high pressure area is developed
over the continents. Therefore, winds blow from land to sea in winter. These winds, being of continental origin, are dry and do not cause rain.

Role of Jet streams, Tibet Plateau and atmosphere-ocean circulation is of prime importance for the origin of Indian Monsoon.During this summer season the vertical sun rays at tropic of cancer ,the circum polar whirl along with westerly jet stream weakened and shifted northward of the Himalayas and southern branch of this jet stream disappeared by 6-10 June. This removal of westerly jet stream to the north of Tibet plateau leads to reversal of curvature of flow of free air to the north and northwest of the subcontinent. It further leads to development of dynamic depression overlying the thermal depression already established at the surface of northwest Indian subcontinent which ultimately help to trigger the burst of Indian monsoon along with it vigorous advance over the Indian subcontinent.

As long as the position of upper air jet stream is maintained above the surface low pressure to the south of the Himalayas the dynamic anticyclonic conditions persist in the northwestern part of Indian subcontinent which obstruct the ascent of air from the surface low as the air is continuously descending from the above. This is the reason why the months of April, May and June are dry inspite of high temperature and evaporation while upper air low pressure in the east of the Himalayas over Myanmar, Assam and Bangladesh helps in ascend of air and produce rainfall.

During October and November, the high pressure over northern lndia, the winds start blowing from northeast as retreating monsoons. Clear skies and the increase in mercury northern plains is observed which is termed as ‘October heat’. At this time, the low pressure conditions shift to the Bay of Bengal giving rise to cyclonic depressions. These cyclonic depressions often results in the destruction of life and property generally on the eastern coast and the southern coast. Most of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from depressions and cyclones.

Utilization for industrial and other purposes, irrigation

June 4, 2017September 7, 2024 by PSC Notes

Industrial Uses

The share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5 per cent of the ground-water. Rough estimates indicate that the present water use in the industrial sector is of the order of 15 km3 . The water use by thermal and nuclear power plants with installed capacities of 40,000 MW and 1500 MW respectively, is estimated to be about 19 km3 . The industries are needed to be switched over to water efficient technologies.

By 2050, India expects to be a major industrial power in the world. Industry needs water fresh or recycled. Processing industries depend on abundance of water. It is estimated that 64 cubic km of water will be needed by 2050 A.D. to sustain the industries. Thermal power generation needs water including a small part that is consumptive. Taking into account the electric power scenario in 2050 A.D., energy related requirement (evaporation and consumptive use) is estimated at 150 cubic km.

With the advent of globalization and privatization ,industrial activities water demands share of water is changing rapidly. In addition increase in population and rapid urbanisation also put an additional demand on water resources.

Water treatment plants for all industries emanating polluted water is the need of the hour.

Domestic Uses

The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as compared to groundwater.The National Water Policy has assigned the highest priority for drinking water supply needs followed by irrigation, hydro-power, navigation and industrial and other uses.

Million Development Goals target to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. The indicators of progress towards this target are;

1) proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved drinking water source (urban and rural);

2) proportion of population with access to improved sanitation.

It is estimated that by 2050, water requirements per year for domestic use will be 90 km3 for low demand scenario and 111 km3 for high demand scenario. It is expected that about 70% of urban water requirement and 30% of rural water requirement will be met by surface water sources and the remaining from groundwater.

Irrigation is needed because of spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the country. The large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone. North-western India and Deccan plateau constitute such areas. Winter and summer seasons are more or less dry in most part of the country. Hence, it is difficult to practise agriculture without assured irrigation during dry seasons.

After independence, the Government of India gave high priority to the construction of major irrigation related infrastructure. At present, India has a capacity to store about 200 billion cubic meters of water, a gross irrigated area of about 90 million hectares 2 and an installed hydro-power capacity of about 30,000 megawatts (World Bank, 2005)

Expansion of Irrigation facilities, along with consolidation of the existing systems, has been the main part of the strategy for increasing production of food grains. With sustained and systematic development of irrigation, the irrigation potential through major, medium and minor irrigation projects has increased from 22.6 million hectares (mha.) in 1951, when the process of planning began in India, to about 98.84 mha. at the end of the year 2004-05.