Environment Pollution is  defined as ‘an addition or excessive addition of certain materials to the physical environment (water, air and lands), making it less fit or unfit for life’.

Pollutants are the materials or factors, which cause adverse effect on the natural quality of any component of the environment.

Classifications

1. According to the form in which they persist after release into the environment.

• Primary pollutants: These persist in the form in which they are added to the environment e.g. DDT, plastic.
• Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction among the primary pollutants. For example, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) is formed by the interaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons.

2. According to their existence in nature.

• Quantitative Pollutants: These occur in nature and become pollutant when their concentration reaches beyond a threshold level. E.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide.
• Qualitative Pollutants: These do not occur in nature and are man-made. E.g. fungicides, herbicides, DDT etc.

3. According to their nature of disposal.

• Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products, which are degraded by microbial action. E.g. sewage.
• Non-biodegradable Pollutants: Pollutants, which are not decomposed by microbial action. E.g. plastics, glass, DDT, salts of heavy metals, radioactive substances etc

4. According to origin

• Natural
• Anthropogenic

 

Any – body of standing water, generally large enough in area and depth, irrespective of its hydrology, ecology, and other characteristics is generally known as lake.

Ageing of Lakes

The nutrient enrichment of the lakes promotes the growth of algae, aquatic plants and various fauna. This process is known as natural eutrophication.

Similar nutrient enrichment of lakes at an accelerated rate is caused by human activities and the consequent ageing phenomenon is known as ‘cultural eutrophication’.

In India, natural lakes (relatively few) mostly ile in the Himalayan region, the floodplains of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.

Lake ‘Sudarshan’ in Gujarat’s Girnar area was perhaps the oldest man-made lake in India, dating back to 300 BC.

Lakes are also classified on the basis of their water chemistry. Based-on the levels of salinity, they are known as Freshwater, Brackish or Saline lakes (similar to that of classification of aquatic ecosystem).

On the basis of their nutrient content, they are categorized as Oligotrophic (very low nutrients), Mesotrophic (moderate nutrients) and Eutrophic (highly nutrient rich).

Removal of the nutrients from a lake

• Flushing with nutrient-poor waters.
• Deep water abstraction.
• On-site P-elimination by flocculation/flotation with water backflow, or floating Plant
• NESSIE with adsorbents.
• On-site algae removal by filters and P-adsorbers.
• 0n-site algae skimming and separator thickening.
• Artificial mixing / Destratification (permanent or intermittent).
• Harvest of fishes and macrophytes.
• Sludge removal

EUTROPHICATION

a syndrome of ecosystem, response to the addition of artificial or natural substances such as nitrates and phosphates through fertilizer, sewage, etc that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem.

The growth of green algae which we see in the lake surface layer is the physical identification of an Eutrophication.

Some algae and blue-green bacteria thrive on the excess ions and a population explosion covers almost entire surface layer is known as algal bloom.  Nitrogen testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of fertilizer required for crop plants. It will reduce the amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area.

 

 

HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS

Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that can be found naturally in coastal waters. They are major producers of oxygen and food for many of the animals that live in these waters.

Algal blooms can be any color, but the most common ones are red or brown.

Most algal blooms are not harmful but some produce toxins and do affect fish, birds, marine mammals and humans.

Use of algae

Most species of algae or phytoplankton serve as the energy producers at the base of the food web, without which higher life on this planet would not exist.

Why Red Tide is a misnomer?

“Red Tide” is a common name for such a phenomenon where certain

phytoplankton species contain pigments and “bloom” such that the human eye perceives the water to be discoloured.

Blooms can appear greenish, brown, and even reddish orange depending upon the type of organism, the type of water, and the concentration of the organisms.

The term “red tide” is thus a misnomer because blooms are not always red, they are not associated with tides, they are usually not harmful, and some species can be harmful or dangerous at low cell concentrations that do not discolour the water.

What are the causes of these blooms?

Two common causes are nutrient enrichment and warm waters.

 

Areas of marsh, fen, peatland/water, whether natural (or) artificial, permanent (or) temporary with water that is static (or) flowing, fresh, brackish (or) salt, including areas of marine

water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 mtrs.

Wetlands Classification-

1. Inland wetland-

a)Natural- Lakes / Ponds, Ox-bow Lakes, Waterlogged, Swamp/marsh

1. b) Manmade- Reservoirs Tank, Ash pond
2. Costal Wetland-
3. A) Natural- Coral reef, Tidal flat, Mangroves, Salt marsh, Estuary, Lagoon, Creek,

Backwater, Bay

b)-manmade -• Salt pans, Aquculture

Functions of Wetlands-

• Habitat to aquatic flora and fauna, birds
• Filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water,
• Nutrients recycling, Water purification Floods mitigation,
• Ground water recharging, Buffer shorelines against erosion,
• Genetic reservoir for various species of plants(rice)
• the National Lake Conservation Programme (NLCP) considers lakes as standing water
• bodies which have a minimum water depth of 3 m, generally cover a water spread of more than ten hectares, and have no or very little aquatic vegetation.
• Wetlands (generally less than 3 m deep over most of their area) are usually rich in nutrients (derived from surroundings and their sediments) and have .abundant growth of aquatic macrophytes

India’s Wetland

Wetlands occupy 18.4% of the country’s area of which 70% are under paddy cultivation.

Inland wetlands >Costal Wetlands

 

National Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)

• NWCP was implemented in the year 1985-86.
• Under the programme, 115 wetlands have been identified by the Ministry which require urgent conservation and management interventions.

Aim

• Conservation of wetlands to prevent their further degradation and ensuring their wise
• use for the benefit of local communities and overall conservation of biodiversity.

Objectives

• to lay down policy guidelines for conservation and management of wetlands in the country.
• to provide financial assistance for undertaking intensive conservation measures in the identified wetlands
• The Central Government is responsible for overall coordination of wetland
• conservation programmes and initiatives at the international and national levels. It also provides guidelines, financial & technical assistance to state govt.
• State Governments/UT Administration are responsible for management of wetlands and implementation of the NWCP for ensuring their wise-use

 

Criteria for Identification of Wetlands of National Importance

Criteria for identification of wetlands of national importance under NWCP are same as those prescribed under the ‘Ramsar Convention on Wetlands’ and are as given below:

1. Sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types

example of a natural or near-natural wetland type’ found within the appropriate biogeographic region.

2. Criteria based on species and ecological communities

• If it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species; or
• threatened ecological communities.
• If it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic region.
• If it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.

 

3. Specific criteria based on water birds

• If it regularly supports 20,000 or more water birds.
• If it regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies of waterbirds.

 

4. Specific criteria based on fish

• If it supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history stages,  species  interactions  and/or  populations  that  are representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby contributes to global biological diversity.
• If it is an important source of food for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.

5. Specific criteria based on water/life and culture

• If it is an important source of food and water resource, increased possibilities for recreation  and eco-tourism, improved scenic values, educational opportunities, conservation of cultural heritage (historic or religious sites)

 

 

Eutrophication is a syndrome of ecosystem, response to the addition of artificial or natural substances such as nitrates and phosphates through fertilizer, sewage, etc that fertilize the aquatic ecosystem.

The growth of green algae which we see in the lake surface layer is the physical identification of an Eutrophication.

Some algae and blue-green bacteria thrive on the excess ions and a population explosion covers almost entire surface layer is known as algal bloom.  Nitrogen testing is a technique to find the optimum amount of fertilizer required for crop plants. It will reduce the amount of nitrogen lost to the surrounding area.

 

 

HARMFUL ALGAL BLOOMS

Algae or phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that can be found naturally in coastal waters. They are major producers of oxygen and food for many of the animals that live in these waters.

Algal blooms can be any color, but the most common ones are red or brown.

Most algal blooms are not harmful but some produce toxins and do affect fish, birds, marine mammals and humans.

Use of algae

Most species of algae or phytoplankton serve as the energy producers at the base of the food web, without which higher life on this planet would not exist.

Why Red Tide is a misnomer?

“Red Tide” is a common name for such a phenomenon where certain

phytoplankton species contain pigments and “bloom” such that the human eye perceives the water to be discoloured.

Blooms can appear greenish, brown, and even reddish orange depending upon the type of organism, the type of water, and the concentration of the organisms.

The term “red tide” is thus a misnomer because blooms are not always red, they are not associated with tides, they are usually not harmful, and some species can be harmful or dangerous at low cell concentrations that do not discolour the water.

What are the causes of these blooms?

Two common causes are nutrient enrichment and warm waters.

 

The interaction between the organisms is fundamental for its survival and functioning of ecosystem as a whole.

Type of Biotic Interaction

1. Mutualism:

both species benefit.

Example: in pollination mutualisms, the pollinator gets food (pollen, nectar), and the plant has its pollen transferred to other flowers for cross-fertilization (reproduction).

 

2. Commensalism:

one species benefits, the other is unaffected.

Example: cow dung provides food and shelter to dung beetles. The beetles have no effect on the cows.

 

3. Competition:

both species are harmed by the interaction.

Example: if two species eat the same food, and there isn’t enough for both, both may have access to less food than they would if alone. They both suffer a shortage of food

 

4. Predation and parasitism:

one species benefits, the other is harmed.

Example : predation—one fish kills and eats ..parasitism: tick gains benefit by sucking blood; host is harmed by losing blood.

 

5. Amensalism :

One species is harmed, the other is unaffected.

Example: A large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the small plant. The small plant has no effect on the large tree.

 

6. Neutralism :

There is no net benefit or harm to either species. Perhaps in some interspecific interactions, the costs and benefits experienced by each partner are exactly the same so that they sum to zero

 

Forest types in India are classified by Champion and Seth into sixteen types.

 

Tropical Wet evergreen forests

are found along the Western Ghats, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands and all  along the north-eastern region.

It is characterized by tall, straight evergreen trees.

The trees in this forest form a tier pattern:

Beautiful fern of various colours and different varieties of orchids grow on the trunks of the trees.

Among the following States, which one has the most suitable climatic conditions for the cultivation of a large variety of orchids with minimum cost of production, and can develop

Tropical Semi-evergreen forests

found in the Western Ghats, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Eastern

Himalayas.

Such forests have a mixture of the wet evergreen trees and the moist

deciduous trees. The forest is dense

Tropical Moist deciduous forests

found throughout India except in the western and the north -western regions.

The trees are tall, have broad trunks, branching trunks and roots to hold them firmly to the ground.

These forests are dominated by sal and teak, along with mango, bamboo, and rosewood.

Littoral and swamp

found along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the delta area of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.

They have roots that consist of soft tissue so that the plant can breathe in the water.

Tropical Dry deciduous forest

The northern part of the country except in the North-East. It is also found in Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu. The canopy, of the trees does not normally exceed 25 metres.

The common trees are the sal, a variety of acacia, and bamboo.

Tropical Thorn forests

This type is found in areas with black soil: North, West, Central, and South India. The trees do not grow beyond 10 metres. Spurge, caper, and cactus are typical of this region.

Tropical Dry evergreen forest

Dry evergreens are found along Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka coast. It is mainly hard-leaved evergreen trees with fragrant flowers, along with a few  deciduous trees.

Sub-tropical Broad-leaved forests

Broad-leaved forests are found in the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats, along the Silent Valley.

There is a marked difference in the form of vegetation in the two areas.

In the Silent Valley, the  poonspar, cinnamon, rhododendron, and fragrant grass are predominant.

In the Eastern Himalayas, the flora has been badly affected by the shifting cultivation and forest fires.

There are oak, alder, chestnut, birch, and cherry trees. There are a large variety of orchids, bamboo and creepers.

Sub-tropical Pine forests

found in Shivalik Hills, Western and Central Himalayas, Khasi, Naga, and Manipur Hills.

The trees predominantly found in these areas are the chir, oak, rhododendion, and   pine as well as sal, amla, and laburnum are found in the lower regions.

 

Sub-tropical Dry evergreen forests

hot and dry season and a cold winter. It generally has evergreen trees with shining

leaves that have a varnished look.

found in the Shivalik Hills and foothills of the Himalayas up to a height of 1000 metres.

Montane Wet temperate forests

In the North, found in the region to the east of Nepal into Arunachal Pradesh, receiving a minimum rainfall of 2000 mm. In the North, there are three layers of    forests: the higher layer has mainly coniferous, the middle layer has deciduous trees such as the oak and the lowest layer is covered by rhododendron and champa.

In the South, it is found in parts of the Niligiri Hills, the higher reaches of Kerala.

The forests in  the northern region are denser than in the South. Rhododendrons and a

variety of ground flora can be found here.

Himalayan Moist temperate Forest

This type spreads from the Western Himalayas to the Eastern Himalayas. The trees

found in the western section are broad-leaved oak, brown oak, walnut,

rhododendron,

Eastern Himalayas, the rainfall is much heavier and therefore the vegetation is also more lush and dense. There are a large variety of broad-leaved trees, ferri, and  bamboo.

Himalayan Dry temperate Forest

This type is found in Lahul, Kinnaur, Sikkim, and other parts of the Himalayas.

There are predominantly coniferous trees, along with broad-leaved trees such as the oak, maple, and ash. At higher elevation, fir, juniper, deodar, and chilgoza are found.

 

Sub alpine forest

Sub alpine forests extend from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh between 2900 to 3500 metres.

In the Western Himalayas, the vegetation consists mainly of juniper, hododendron, willow, and black currant.

In the eastern parts, red fir, black juniper, birch, and larch are the common trees.

Due to heavy rainfall and high humidity the timberline in this part is higher than that in the West.

Rhododendron of many species covers the hills in these parts.

Moist Alpine scrub

Moist alpines are found all along the Himalayas and on the higher hills near the Myanmar border. It has a low scrub, dense evergreen forest, consisting mainly of rhododendron and birch. Mosses and ferns cover the ground in patches. This region receives heavy snowfall.

Dry alpine scrub

Dry alpines are found from about 3000 metres to about 4900 metres. Dwarf plants predominate, mainly the black juniper, the drooping juniper, honeysuckle, and willow.

 

• located where river meets the sea.
• the most productive water bodies in the world
• The complete salinity range from 0-35 ppt is seen from the head (river end) to the mouth (sea end) of an estuary
• Coastal lakes which have their connection with the sea through small openings are better known as lagoons or backwaters acting as a natural water filter

 

Estuary Formation:

grouped into four geomorphic categories based on the physical processes responsible for their formation:

1) rising sea level; (2) movement of sand and sandbars; (3) glacial processes; and (4) tectonic processes.

India Estuarine Ecosystem

The Country has 14 major, 44 medium and 162 minor rivers drains into the sea through various estuaries.

Major estuaries occur in the Bay of Bengal.

Most of the India’s major estuaries occur on the east coast. In contrast, the estuaries on the west coast are smaller.

• Bruntland Report (1983) was the first publication and recognition of the term ‘Sustainable Development’
  • “meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of the future generation”
• Three pillars of sustainable development (Bruntland)
  • Care and respect for People, Planet and Prosperity (Commercial Activities) <hence poverty alleviation, conservation and business development>
  • These three pillars are of equal importance
• SD is about a value system. It is not a scientific formula.
• Thinking beyond pure self-gratification to awareness that harm to one will eventually be harm to all.
• Interconnectedness and interdependence of all things
• All three pillars have equal importance. Focus on only one of them will unbalance the whole
• SD is a necessity, not a luxury that we can afford to miss.

Questioning Development <too detailed; at times peripheral. Be choosy>

• Current practices must change
• Should shatter the ‘development’ myth. Simply economic growth will not create more jobs and more wealth for all.
• Steady-state economics. Economic growth is measured in terms of how much we produce and consume, and what we destroy in the process need not be included in the calculations.
• 20% of the world consumes 80% of its resources
• According to UNDP, consumption of goods and services in 1997 was twice that in 1975 and six times more than in 1950.
• An estimated 1 billion people still do not have the means to meet their basic needs.
• Inequalities are increasing. The assets of world’s three richest men are greater than the combined national product of 48 poorest countries.
• Higher crime rates are associated with wider income gaps
• Jobless growth.
• Under-nutrition is still a huge problem among children

Economic Growth and Sustainability

• Over-consumption has led to depletion of resources
• Main environmental threats
  • Depletion of resources
  • Global warming
  • Expansion of waste arising from production and consumption
  • Population pressure
  • Pollution
  • Loss of biodiversity and extinction of species.
• Green National Income Account
  • Conventional national income accounting does not capture the environmental degradation due to production and consumption
  • This omission leads to misrepresentation of improvements in social welfare
  • Since there is no market for many environmental resources, it is difficult to place monetary values on them
  • Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare: adjusts the national income to make an allowance for defensive spending (i.e. that incurred in cleaning up for pollution and other forms of environmental damage)
• Economic Sustainability
  • Calls for reforms in the manner that we conduct our economic activity
  • Removing unfair trade barriers and subsidies that harm the environment
  • Upholding the polluter pays principle
  • Tax not on labour but on consumption <already there in the form of indirect taxes>
  • Pricing products in terms of value they have deducted from the common natural base
  • Increase resource productivity
• Sustainable agriculture
  • Use of practices and methods to maintain/enhance the economic viability of agricultural production, natural resource base, and other ecosystems which are influenced by agricultural activities
  • Minimizing the adverse impact on the natural resources base
  • Flexible farming systems to manage the risks associated with climate and markets

Ecological Sustainability

• Sustainable forest management
  • ‘Forest Principle’ adopted at the 1992 Rio Summit
  • In 2007, GA adopted the Non Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. The instrument is the first of its kind and is committed to promote SFM by bringing all stakeholders together
  • Ministerial Conference on Protection of Forests in Europe defined SFM as the attainment of balance between society’s increasing demands for forest products and benefits, and the preservation of forest health and diversity.
  • Forest managers must assess and integrate a wide array of sometimes conflicting factors to produce sound forest plans
  • Ecosystems approach has been adopted by the CBD. The CBD definition of Ecosystems Approach is known as the Malawi Principles.
  • Ecosystems Approach is a strategy of management of land, water and living resources in a way that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Focused on use of scientific methodologies for each level of biological organisation and their interaction.
  • SFM was recognised by the parties to CBD in 2004 to be a concrete means of applying the Ecosystems Approach to forest ecosystems
• Objectives of SFM
  • Maintain environmental stability through preservation of ecological balance that has been adversely affected due to the depletion of forest cover
  • Preserve the natural heritage of the country
  • Improve productivity of forests
  • Protecting through cooperation with local communities on the principle of Joint Forest Management
• India
  • One of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world
  • National Forest Policy 1988 emphasizes environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance
  • Existing infrastructure for forest protection is inadequate
  • Surveys not carried out in many areas. Question of tribal rights
  • Protect from forest fires
• Integrated Forest Protection Scheme
  • 10^th FYP. In all States and UTs
  • Formed by merger of two 9^th FYP schemes: ‘Forest Fire Control and Management’ and ‘Bridging of Infrastructure Gaps in the Forestry Sector in the North Eastern Region and Sikkim’
  • Components
    • Infrastructure development: survey and demarcation, strengthening the infrastructure for Forest Protection Division
    • Forest fire control and management
  • Implementing agencies
    • Central Component: Forest Protection Division, MoEF; Forest Survey of India, Dehradun; Central institutions like Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (Dehradun), IIFM (Bhopal) etc shall be involved
    • State Component: Forest dept of the concerned state/UT

Social Sustainability

• Fairness in the access to and benefits from the Earth’s resources
• Impact of poverty on environment/Environment and poverty are related issues
• Diverting resources to non-productive areas
• Health and SD
  • Environment and public health are inter-related
• Agenda 21 was adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) [Earth Summit] in 1992
  • It also places particular emphasis on the need to take health considerations into account in planning for SD
• Urbanisation
• Need for holistic approach

Water and SD

• Agriculture consumes nearly 70 pc of water consumption worldwide, industry -22 pc and household activities – 8 pc [WDR, 2010]
• Geographical distribution of water: just nine countries account for 60 pc of all available freshwater supplies
• Industrial use takes about 60 pc of water in rich countries and 10 pc in the rest.
• Suggestions
  • Use of sea water
  • Judicial use of freshwater
  • Development of salt-resistant crops

SD in a globalising world

• Globalisation is increasing the gap between the rich and the poor
• It has to be steered so that it serves not only the commercial interests but social needs of development
• Mechanisms to safeguard trade and livelihoods, especially in developing countries, must be evolved and negotiated to make globalisation an effective vehicle of SD
• Industrialised countries must continue to assist the developing countries as well as promote trade
• Environment and social causes must not be used selectively to erect trade barriers against developing countries