HISTORY

Meghalaya Tax and economic reforms

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Meghalaya Goods and Service Tax:

The Meghalaya government introduced in the state assembly, the Meghalaya Goods and Services Tax Bill, 2017.  GST will abolish all the taxation related disputes between the States and this will make Indian economy more strong. It was the highest tax reforms of state and centre as well.

The Meghalaya government demanded the following amendments —

  • The GST Council accepted that green arecanut will be tax-free while processed arecanut or ‘supari’ will be taxed at 5 per cent only. So is also the case with dry fish in which the Council has agreed to bring down the tax from 12 per cent to 5 per cent
  • The other issues Meghalaya government had demanded was the reduction from Rs 50,000 to Rs 10,000 where a purchaser is not required to give his details in the invoice.

Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a comprehensive indirect tax on manufacture, sale, and consumption of goods and services throughout India. GST would replace respective taxes levied by the central and state governments.

What is GST?

  • It is a destination-based taxation system.
  • It has been established by the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act.
  • It is an indirect tax for the whole country on the lines of “One Nation One Tax” to make India a unified market.
  • It is a single tax on supply of Goods and Services in its entire product cycle or life cycle i.e. from manufacturer to the consumer.
  • It is calculated only in the “Value addition” at any stage of a goods or services.
  • The final consumer will pay only his part of the tax and not the entire supply chain which was the case earlier.
  • There is a provision of GST Council to decide upon any matter related to GST whose chairman in the finance minister of India.

What taxes at center and state level are incorporated into the GST?

At the State Level

  • State Value Added Tax/Sales Tax
  • Entertainment Tax (Other than the tax levied by the local bodies)
  • Octroi and Entry Tax
  • Purchase Tax
  • Luxury Tax
  • Taxes on lottery, betting, and gambling

At the Central level

  • Central Excise Duty
  • Additional Excise Duty
  • Service Tax
  • Additional Customs Duty (Countervailing Duty)
  • Special Additional Duty of Customs

Benefits of GST

For Central and State Governments

  • Simple and Easy to administer: Because multiple indirect taxes at the central and state levels are being replaced by a single tax “GST”. Moreover, backed with a robust end to end IT system, it would be easier to administer.
  • Better control on leakage: Because of better tax compliance, reduction of rent seeking, transparency in taxation due to IT use, an inbuilt mechanism in the design of GST that would incentivize tax compliance by traders.
  • Higher revenue efficiency: Since the cost of collection will decrease along with an increase in the ease of compliance, it will lead to higher tax revenue.

For the Consumer

  • The single and transparent tax will provide a lowering of inflation.
  • Relief in overall tax burden.
  • Tax democracy that is luxury items will be taxed more and basic goods will be tax-free.

For the Business Class

  • Ease of doing business will increase due to easy tax compliance.
  • Uniformity of tax rate and structure, therefore, better future business decision making and investments by the corporates.
  • Removal of cascading effects of taxes.
  • Reduction in transactional cost will lead to improved competitiveness.
  • Gain to the manufacturer and exporters.
  • It is expected to raise the country GDP by 2% points.

GST Council

  • It is the 1st Federal Institution of India, as per the Finance minister.
  • It will approve all decision related to taxation in the country.
  • It consists of Centre, 29 states, Delhi and Puducherry.
  • Centre has 1/3rd voting rights and states have 2/3rd voting rights.
  • Decisions are taken after a majority in the council.

Supporting Laws to implement GST

For the implementation of GST, apart from the Constitution Amendment Act, some other statutes are also necessary. Recently 5 supporting laws to the GST were recommended by the council. 4 for the bills should be passed by the parliament, while the 5th one should be passed by respective state legislatures. The details are given below.

  • The Central Goods and Services Tax Bill 2017 (The CGST Bill).
  • The Integrated Goods and Services Tax Bill 2017 (The IGST Bill).
  • The Union Territory Goods and Services Tax Bill 2017 (The UTGST Bill).
  • The Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to the States) Bill 2017 (The Compensation Bill).
  • And a state GST will be passed by the respective state legislative assemblies.
  • Tax slabs are decided as 0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, 28% along with categories of exempted and zero rated goods for different types of goods and services.
  • Further, a cess would be levied on certain goods such as luxury cars, aerated drinks, pan masala and tobacco products, over and above the rate of 28% for payment of compensation to the States.
  • However, which goods and services fall into which bracket is still an enormous task to be completed by the GST council.
  • Highest tax slab is pegged at 40%.

DEMONETIZATION AND CASHLESS ECONOMY

What is Demonetization?

  • It is a financial step where in a currency unit’s status as a legal tender is declared invalid.
  • This is usually done when old currency notes are to be replaced with the news ones.
  • The 500 and 1000 rupee notes seized to be a legal tender from 8 November, 2016.

A brief past

  • Demonetisation was earlier done in 1978 When the government demonetised Rs. 1000, Rs. 5000 and Rs. 10000 notes.
  • This was done under the High Denomination Bank Note (Demonetisation) Act, 1978.
  • The difference between 1978 and 2016 Demonetisation is that the currency in circulation (of the higher denomination) is higher in 2016 than was in 1978.
  • The current demonitization has been done by government under section 26(2) of the Reserve Bank of India Act.

 

Implications of Demonetization

  • A parallel black economy would collapse.
  • Of the Rs 17 lakh crore of total currency in circulation in the country, black money is estimated at mind-boggling Rs 3 lakh crore.
  • Counterfeit currency: Death blow to the counterfeit Indian currency syndicate operating both inside and outside the country.
  • On Employment: a large part of the Indian economy is still outside the banking system. So, the cash shortage will hurt the informal sector that does most of its transactions in cash.
  • On elections: It will reduce the Vote-for-Note politics making elections more clean and transparent.
  • On Economy:
  • First, it will bring more borrowings to the exchequer, improve inflation outlook and increase India’s gross domestic product (GDP).
  • Second, it will revive investment opportunities and give a fillip to infrastructure and the manufacturing sector.
  • Third, it will help reduce interest rates and lower income tax rate.
  • Real estate cleansing: An unexpected dip in land and property prices.
  • On Higher Education: will become more reachable as the black money from ‘high capitation fees’ is discouraged.
  • On security:
  • Terror financing: Terror financing is sourced through counterfeit currency and hawala transactions.
  • Kashmir unrest: The four-month-long unrest in Kashmir valley is on a backburner
  • North-East insurgency and Maoists: Black money is the oxygen for Maoists collected through donations, levy and extortions. The illicit money is used to purchase arms and ammunition

Economic Reforms:

The basic objective of economic reforms was to improve productivity growth and competitiveness in the Indian manufacturing sector. These reforms were aimed at making Indian manufacturing sector more efficient and technologically up to date, with the expectation that these changes would enable Indian manufacturing sector to achieve higher and sustainable growth. The government started to deregulate the Indian economy with a liberalization programme, focused on the investment pattern, trade policies, the financial sector, taxation and public enterprises.

In recent times, Industrialization has become the catch word of the midtwentieth century and industrial development of the under developed countries or developing countries like India. One of the great world crusades of our times, the Less Developed Countries (LDCs) hope to find in it a solution their problems of poverty, insecurity, overpopulation, backwardness, illiteracy etc. They consider it a panacea for all the evils of their social and economic life. In fact, the essence of economic development of an LDC like India consists essentially in the growth of industrialization.

Realizing the importance of industrialization, once Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru rightly remarked, “Real progress must ultimately depend on industrialization”. His vision was to see India in the group of developed nations of the world and industrialization was the only key to restructure the economy and to achieve sustained growth. Indian economy is a basically an agriculture based economy. It has been evident from the experience of the most of advanced countries that growth based upon agriculture sector will not be sustainable growth.

After studying such behavior of terms of trade they made their belief that for the agriculture based economies terms of trade would always become unfavorable in long run because;

  1. a) The income elasticity of export-goods of agricultural countries is low, while the income elasticity of import-goods is very high. As in case of domestic demand, the demand for agricultural products in other countries, in particular advance countries, is very low. In fact, developed countries have surpluses in agriculture products for exports. As against this, the demand for the import of manufactured goods by LDCs is very intense; and
  2. b) With the advancement of technology, input-output coefficients are declining and most of primary products which were used as raw material are replaced by the industrial cheaper raw material.

On the other hand, if we develop only tertiary sector and ignore industrial sector then there may be tendency of inflation in the economy and this inflation may lead to deceleration economic growth. Therefore, industrialization is the only method to achieve sustained economic growth. Moreover, economic history demonstrates that to eliminate a country’s techno-economic backwardness it is necessary to develop the industrial sector and then to diversify it over a wide range of area and activities. Industrialization is a process of economic organization characterized by rapid setting up of industries and has invariably been the accompaniment of economic development. Nevertheless, economic development should not be treated synonymous with industrialization because industrialization is only a part of the whole process of economic development.

Some of the major initiatives taken by the government to promote Meghalaya as an investment destination are:

  • Under budget 2016-17, the state government proposed allocation of US$ 1.98 million for various art and cultural programs for the development, augmentation and preservation of cultural heritage of the state.
  • Under budget 2016-17, the state government proposed an allocation of US$ 103.42 million for development of education sector in the state.
  • Under the annual budget 2015-16, an investment of US$ 0.29 million has been approved by the Meghalaya State Medicinal Plants Board to increase the production of medicinal plants.
  • The state government has also proposed an outlay of US$ 32.13 million to improve power supply in the state and associated services, power losses in urban areas, etc., under the Restructured Accelerated Power Development and Reforms Programme.
  • An investment of US$ 3.98 million was proposed to be invested for the development of roads and bridges in the state and US$ 54.66 million was proposed for the improvement of the agriculture sector of the state under the 12th Five Year Plan (2012-2017).
  • The state is focusing on developing water harvesting and distribution infrastructure to increase the level of mechanisation in the horticulture sector.
  • Hydroelectric power projects with a total capacity of 687 MW have been proposed to be set up in Meghalaya. All these projects are projected to be operational by 2016-17.
  • The state government is inviting investments in this area through the PPP mode. Independent power producers (IPPs) are also being invited to develop hydro projects in Meghalaya; this provides immense potential for investment.

Salient features of Architecture – Forts and Monuments

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The architecture of Rajasthan is mainly based on the Rajput school of architecture which was a blend of the Hindu and Mughal structural design. The stupendous forts, the intricately carved temples and the grand havelis of the state are integral parts of the architectural heritage of the state. The Rajputs were prolific builders. Some of the most imposing and magnificent forts and palaces in the world dot the arid Aravali landscape and tell the tales of their glorious legacy.

M?ru-Gurjara Architecture show the deep understanding of structures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygone era. M?ru-Gurjara Architecture has two prominent styles Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara.

Islamic influence in the architecture of Rajasthan is most prominent in the city of Ajmer. The important monuments of this city are the Dargah Sharif of Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti which consists of a number of white marble buildings arranged around two courtyards, including a huge gate donated by the Nizam of Hyderabad, a mosque given by Shah Jahan and the Akbari mosque. Hindu architecture can be witnessed in Pushkar where there are several Ghats and temples. The outstanding temples standing in an array, with their touches of the Islamic architectural style, are richly different in style.

Important Features of Rajasthani Architecture are:-


Haveli: Between 1830 and 1930, the affluent Marwaris constructed huge mansions in the Shekhawati and Marwar region. These buildings were called Havelis. They were heavily influenced by the Mughal architecture in their construction. There were two courtyards in a typical Shekhawati haveli. The outer courtyard was mainly inhabited by men and the inner one was the domain of women. The havelis also sported beautiful and appealing frescoes and were closed from all sides with one large main gate. This provided security and comfort in seclusion from the outside world.

Chhatri: Originating in Rajasthan, chhatris are elevated, dome-shaped pavilions and are visible elements of the Rajasthani architecture, where they are the symbols of pride and honour. In the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan, chhatris are built on the cremation sites of wealthy or distinguished people. Chhatris in Shekhawati are usually of a simple structure of one dome raised by four pillars in a building containing many domes and a basement with several rooms. Many prominent chhatris exist in cities like Jaipur, Jodhpur, Udaipur, Haldighati, Bikaner, etc.

Jharokha: It’s a type of overhanging enclosed balcony which is commonly found in palaces, havelis and temples in Rajasthan. This balcony is normally a stone window. Jharokhas jut forward from the wall plane and can be used for either adding to the architectural beauty of the building itself or for a specific purpose. In the ancient times, the women in purdah could see the events outside without being spotted themselves. The projected balcony, which is an essential element of the Rajasthani Architecture, served as a decoration piece and as a viewing platform. Many jharokhas also have chhajjas attached to them.

Stepwell: A stepwell (or a bawdi) is a well or pond in which the water can be reached by climbing down a set of steps. These bawdis are common in the Western India, especially in Rajasthan and Gujarat. Stepwells have been in existence for hundreds of years. In the ancient times, builders dug deep trenches into the earth for dependable, year-round groundwater. The walls of these trenches were lined with stoneblocks but without mortar. Stairs were created leading down to the water. The majority of surviving stepwells originally also served as leisure points, as well as provided water. The city of Bundi (near Kota) has as many as 60 stepwells.

19.01.18 Meghalaya(MeghalayaPSC) Current Affairs

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NORTH-EASTERN STATES

 

  • New moth species discovered in Arunachal Pradesh

 

  • Researchers have discovered a new species of moth from the Talle Wildlife Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh.

 

  • The new species, scientifically named Elcysma Ziroensis, be commonly called Apatani Glory, named after a local tribe called Apatani.

 

  • This species has only been seen during autumn, notably in the month of September, indicating that it is a univoltine species, meaning it has one brood of young in a year.

 

 

 

INTERNATIONAL

 

  • Romania to have first female prime minister, Viorica Dancila

 

  • Viorica Dancila has been named as Romania’s first female PM following the sudden resignation of Mihai Tudose.

 

  • Ms Dancila, a member of the European Parliament, is regarded as an ally of the governing Social Democratic Party (PSD) leader Liviu Dragnea.

 

  • Ms Dancila, 54, is Romania’s third prime minister in seven months.

 

·        Google awarded 72 lakh for finding bugs in Pixel phone

 

  • Google awarded nearly 72 lakh to researcher Guang Gong for finding bugs in its Pixel devices.
  • The exploit chain consisted of two bugs which together could inject arbitrary code into system server by accessing a malicious URL in Chrome.
  • Around 67 lakh of the reward was given from Google’s Android Security Rewards program, the highest in the program’s history.

 

 

NATIONAL

 

·        India Ratings Projects Economic Growth at 7.1 Next Fiscal

 

  • India Ratings and Research have projected the country’s economic growth to improve to 1 percentin 2018-19 from 6.5 percent in 2017-18, buoyed by robust consumer demand and low commodity prices.
  • In its outlook for 2018-19, according to the agency, there will be a gradual pickup in growth momentum owing to structural reforms like GST and Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code in place.
  • The projection is a tad lower than 7.4 percent growth estimated by Asian Development Bank and International Monetary Fund for next fiscal.

 

  • Government to set up $350 million fund to finance solar projects

 

  • Government will set up a $350 million fund to finance solar projects, as the country steps up efforts to achieve its ambitious target of adding 175 gigawatts (GW) in renewable energy by 2022.

 

  • India will need at least $125 billion to fund a plan to increase the share of renewable power supply in the country’s grid by 2022.

 

  • The country, which receives twice as much sunshine as European nations, wants to make solar central to its renewable expansion.

 

  • Installed renewable power capacity is currently about 60 GW

·        HDFC Bank Becomes 1st Indian Bank to Cross Rs5 trillion Market Capitalisation

  • India’s most-valued lender HDFC Bank Limitedcrossed Rs5 trillion capitalization action for the first time, making it only the third Indian company to achieve this milestone.
  • In intraday trade, the stock touched a fresh record high of Rs1,53.75 on the BSE, up 3.31% from its previous close.
  • Tata Consultancy Services Ltd (TCS) and Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL) are the other two companies which crossed market capitalisation of Rs5 trillion.

 

·        NPPA fixes retail price of 30 drug formulations

 

  • Drug price regulator National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority (NPPA)fixed retail price for 30 drug formulations, including those used for the treatment of Diabetics, bacterial infections, and high blood pressure.
  • NPPA is an independent body under Department of Pharmaceuticals, Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers. It was set up in 1997.
  • Its mandate is to fix/review.
  • Essential medicines are those that satisfy the priority health care needs of the country’s population.

 

·        Maharashtra becomes first state to unveil Public Cloud Policy

 

  • Maharashtra became the first state in the country to unveil Public Cloud Policy that virtually mandates state government departments to shift their data storage.
  • The State Government had formed a four-member committee to draft policy framework on cloud usage.
  • The policy will result in additional private sector investments worth the US $2 billion for cloud industry as the government is one of biggest creators.

 

·        Virat Kohli named as Captain of ICCs Test and ODI Teams of the Year

 

  • Virat Kohli was named the captain of the International Cricket Council (ICC) Test and One-Day International (ODI) teams of the year that included four other Indians as well.
  • Kohli scored 2,023 runs at 77.80, including eight centuries and three half-centuries in 18 matches during the qualification period.
  • He surprisingly pipped Australian skipper Steve Smith for the ICC’s Test team captaincy.
  • The Test team also comprises Cheteshwar Pujara and Ravichandran Ashwin.

Famous Personalities of Fredom Struggle of India

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Keshab Chander Sen :-

? was an Indian Bengali Hindu philosopher and social reformer who attempted to incorporate Christian theology within the framework of Hindu thought.He was born on 19th November 1838 in Kolkata. He was a descendant of the medieval Sena kings of Bengal.

? He was so influenced by the ideas of Brahmo Samaj that he joined the Calcutta Brahmo Samaj in 1857.

? At the age of 19, Keshab Chandra Sen started social work by establishing an evening school for adults.

? He used the medium of Press to spread social consciousness and development.

? he started a fortnightly journal ‘Indian Mirror’

? Keshab Chandra Sen was associated with many revolutionary programs of social reform like liberation of women from the social bindings, education of women and the poor workers, eradication of social evils like untouchability and casteism, spread of vernacular and various charitable works for the oppressed people.

? He took the initiative to introduce legislation to curb polygamy and child marriage and promoted inter-caste marriage.

? he was given the title of ‘Acharya’ of the ‘Brahmo Samaj’ by Devendranath Tagore. But due to the differences in the beliefs and philosophies of Devendranath Tagore and Keshab Chandra Sen, Brahmo Samaj split into two.

? founded his own breakaway “Brahmo Samaj of India” in 1866

? he propagated the Navavidhan, the New Dispensation or the Religion of Harmony. He preached bhakti, which was inspired from both Chaitanya and Christ.

 

Theodore Beck:-
was a British educationalist working for the British Raj in India, who was invited by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to serve as the first principal of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at the age 24. in Aligarh, which would later evolve into the Aligarh Muslim University. He was also opposed to join the Congress.

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan

? An Afghan Pashtun political and spiritual leader known for his non-violent opposition to British Rule in India.

? A lifelong pacifist, a devout Muslim,and a close friend of Mohandas Gandhi

? he was also known as Fakhri Afghan (“The Afghan pride”), Badshah Khan and Sarhaddi Gandhi (Urdu, Hindi lit.,
“Frontier Gandhi”)

? he decided social activism and reform would be more beneficial for Pashtuns. This ultimately led to the formation of the Khudai Khidmatgar movement (Servants of God). The movement’s success triggered a harsh crackdown

against him and his supporters and he was sent into exile.

? It was at this stage in the late 1920s that he formed an alliance with Gandhi and the Indian National Congress. This alliance was to last till the 1947 partition of India.

? Ghaffar Khan strongly opposed the Muslim League’s demand for the partition of India.
? In 1987 he became the first person without Indian citizenship to be awarded the Bharat Ratna

Sajjad Zaheer

? was a renowned Urdu writer, Marxist thinker

? Famously known as Bannay Mian, Zaheer was born in Lukhnow, the former state of Oudh

? He was one of the founding members of the Communist Party of India and later in 1948, the Communist Party of Pakistan, along with Faiz Ahmad Faiz.

? A collection of short stories, Angaray, which had stories by Sajjad Zaheer

? and was immediately banned in India by the British Government in 1933, “for hurting the religious susceptibilities of a section of the community.” This gave rise to the All-India Progressive Writers’ Movement & Association of which both Sajjad Zaheer and Ahmed Ali were co-founders.

? The first official conference of the Association was held in Lucknow in 1936 which was presided over by Munshi Premchand.

? LITERARY CONTRIBUTION:-London Ki Ek Raat- a novel.,Roshnai, a collection of essays on progressive writing and the progressive writers movement., Zikre Hafiz, his research based book on Persian poet Hafez.,Pighla Nilam, his last book,a collection of his poetry.

WW HUNTER

? Scottish historian, statistician, a compiler and a member of theIndian Civil Service, who later became Vice President of Royal Asiatic Society

? In 1869 Lord Mayo, the then governor-general, asked Hunter to submit a scheme for a comprehensive Statistical Survey of India. And the The Imperial Gazetteer of India was published in 1881.

? In 1882 presided over the commission on Indian Education

? in 1886 he was elected vice-chancellor of the University of Calcutta.

Achyut Patwardhan

? was an Indian independence activist and political leader and founder of the Socialist Party of India. He was also a philosopher who believed fundamental change in society begins with man himself,

? He studied Communist and Socialist literature, resigned his Professorship and plunged in 1932 into Gandhiji’s civil disobedience movement. He was imprisoned several times.
? In 1934 he and his associates in jail formed the Congress Socialistic Party with a view to working for socialistic objectives from within the Congress.

? He took a prominent part in the Quit India movement. he went underground, and ably directed the movement of a parallel government mainly in the Satara district.

? In 1947 they formed the Socialist Party of India, independently of the Congress. In 1950 Achyut retired from politics

LALA HAR DAYAL

? Indian revolutionary and scholar who was dedicated to the removal of British influence in India.

? On a Government of India scholarship to St. John’s College at Oxford, he became a supporter of the Indian revolutionary movement. In 1907 Har Dayal resigned his scholarship

? He returned to India in 1908 to further indigenous political institutions and to arouse his countrymen against British rule, butthe government thwarted his work, and he soon returned to Europe.

? In 1913 he formed the Ghadar rebellion (Gadar) Party to organize a against the British government of India.

Jiddu Krishnamurti

? was an Indian writer and speaker on philosophical and spiritual subjects. His subject matter included: psychological revolution, the nature of the mind, meditation, human relationships, and bringing about positive change in society

? He constantly stressed the need for a revolution in the psyche of every human being and emphasized that such revolution cannot be brought about by any external entity, be it religious, political, or social.

? He claimed allegiance to no nationality, caste, religion, or philosophy, and spent the most of his life traveling the world, speaking to large and small groups and individuals

? His supporters, working through non-profit foundations in India, Great Britain and the United States, oversee several independent schools based on his views on education.

Gopi Krishna

? was a yogi, mystic, teacher, social reformer, and writer

? His autobiography is known under the title Kundalini: The Evolutionary Energy in Man.,in it he has put this amazing aspect of our nature in a logical, consistent and scientific light, and presented us with a new understanding of the goal of evolution, both as individuals and as a species.

? he himself has started to search the life of geniuses and enlightented persons in history for clues of kundalini awakening. He proposed an organisation to be erected to conduct scientific research on the matter. The research should, according to him, consist of research on biological processes in the body, psychological and sociological
research of living persons. According to Mr. Krishna the lives of historical persons should also be investigated.

Sir Muhammad Iqbal or Allama Iqbal
? was a philosopher,poet and politician in British India who is widely regarded as having inspired the Pakistan Movement.

? He is considered one of the most important figures in Urdu literature, with literary work in both the Urdu and Persian languages

? his best known Urdu works are Bang-i-Dara, Bal-i-Jibril, Zarb-i Kalim and a part of Armughan-e-Hijaz.

? Iqbal became a member of the London branch of the All India Muslim League,in one of his most famous speeches, Iqbal pushed for the creation of a Muslim state in Northwest India.

? Pakistan Government had recognised him as its “national poet”

Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu

? was an Indian politician and Freedom Fighter , prominent Telugu barrister and the first Chief Minister of the Indian province Andhra state. He was also known as Andhra Kesari

?  He was elected the general secretary of the Congress Party in December 1921 at the Ahmedabad session

Maulana Mohammad  Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali

? were Indian Muslim leaders, activists, scholars, journalists and poets, and was among the leading figures of the Khilafat Movement

? Maulana Mohammad Ali Jouhar had spent four years in prison for advocating resistance to the British and support for the caliphate.

? publish the Urdu weekly Hamdard and the English weekly Comrade.

? form the All India Khilafat Committee. The organization was based in Lucknow,

? In 1920 an alliance was made between Khilafat leaders and the Indian National Congress, to work and fight together for the causes of Khilafat and Swaraj.

? Many Hindu religious and political leaders identified the Khilafat cause as Islamic fundamentalism based on a pan-Islamic agenda. And many Muslim leaders viewed the Indian National Congress as becoming increasingly dominated by Hindu fundamentalists and thus the Ali brothers began distancing themselves from Gandhi
and the Congress.

Dr. Dhondo Keshav Karve

? popularly known as Maharishi Karve, was a social reformer in India in the field of women’s welfare.

? Mr Karve decided to continue the work of promoting women’s education in India. The Government of India awarded Dhondo Keshav Karve its highest civilian award, Bh?rat Ratna,

? founded Widhaw?-Wiw?hottejak Mandali, which, besides encouraging marriages of widows, also helped the needy children of widows.

? established a Hindu Widows’ Home Association

Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna

? was as Indian revolutionary, the founding president of the Ghadar Party, and a leading member of the party involved in the Ghadar Conspiracy of 1915.

? Tried at the Lahore Conspiracy trial, Sohan Singh served sixteen years of a life sentence for his part in the conspiracy before he was released in 1930.

? He later worked closely with the Indian labour movement, devoting considerable time to the Kisan Sabha and
the Communist Party of India.

Alluri Sita Rama Raju

? was an Indian revolutionary involved in the independence movement.

? Raju led the ill-fated “Rampa Rebellion” of 1922–24, during which a band of tribal leaders and other sympathizers fought against the British Raj. He was referred to as “Manyam Veerudu” (“Hero of the Jungles”) by the local people.

Baba Ram Chandra or Shridhar Balwant Jodhpurkar

? was an Indian trade unionist ,who organised the farmers of Oudh, India into forming a united front to fight against the abuses of landlords in the 1920s and 1930s ,and formed the Oudh Kisan Sabha

? He was also an influential figure in the history of Fiji, and owed his inspiration to take up the cause of the down-trodden to his 12 years as an indentured labourer in Fiji and to his efforts to end the indenture system. He was a Brahmin, of Maharashtrian origin. He left for Fiji as an indentured labourer in 1904

Sir Thomas Roe

? diplomat and author who advanced England’s mercantile interest in Asia and was prominent in negotiations during the Thirty Years’ War.

? Roe began his diplomatic career in India as ambassador to the court of the Mogul emperor J?h?ng?r.

? As ambassador to Constantinople (1621–28), Roe obtained increased privileges for the English merchants trading in the Ottoman Empire.

? He negotiated a treaty with Algiers, then subject to Ottoman rule, resulting in the release of several hundred Englishmen captured by the Barbary pirates

Romesh Chunder Dutt

? was an Indian civil servant, economic historian, writer, and translator of Ramayana and Mahabharata.

? As an ics officier Dutt was especially troubled by the lack of assured tenants’ rights or rights of transfer for those who tilled the land. He considered the land taxes to be ruinous, a block to savings, and the source of famines.

? .He was president of the Indian National Congress in 1899.

? Dutt served as the first president of Bangiya Sahitya Parishad

? Dutt traced a decline in standards of living to the nineteenth-century deindustrialization of the subcontinent and
the narrowing of sources of wealth

? Wrote economic history of india under british rule

Lakshmi Bai, the Rani of Jhansi

? was the queen of the Maratha-ruled princely state of Jhansi, situated in the north-central part of India.

? She was one of the leading figures of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and a symbol of resistance to the rule of the British East India Company in the subcontinent.after she was forcibly retired by the British due to a controversial law of “Doctrine of Lapse”

? Hugh Rose ,the army commander ,commented that the Jhansi Rani Lakshmibai is “personable, clever and beautiful” and she is “the most dangerous of all Indian leaders ”

Lala Har Dayal
? was a Indian nationalist revolutionary who founded the Ghadar Party in America.

? The movement began with a group of immigrants known as the Hindustani Workers of the Pacific Coast.

? In a letter toThe Indian Sociologist he started , published in 1907, to explore anarchist ideas, In April 1914, he was arrested by the United States government for spreading anarchist literature and fled to Berlin, Germany.

 

 

Struggles for Gurudwara Reform and Temple Entry

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  • The Akali movement
  • The movement arose with the objective of freeing the Gurudwaras from the control of ignorant and corrupt priests (mahants).
  • Apart from the mahants, after the British annexation of Punjab in 1849, some control over the Gurudwaras was exercised by Government-nominated managers and custodians, who often collaborated with mahants.
  • The government gave full support to the mahants. It used them to preach loyalism to the Sikhs and to keep them away from the rising nationalist movement.
  • The agitation for the reform of Gurudwaras developed during 1920 when the reformers organized groups of volunteers known as jathas to compel the mahants and the government appointed managers to hand over control of the Gurudwaras to the local devotees.
  • Tens of Gurudwaras were liberated within an year.
  • To manage the control of Golden Temple and othe rGurudwaras the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee was formed in November 1920.
  • Feeling the need to give the reform movement a structure, the Shiromani Akali Dal was established in December 1920.
  • The SGPC and Akali Dal accepted complete non-violence as their creed.
  • There was a clash between the mahant and the Akalis over surrendering the gurudwara at Nanakana. This led to killing of about 100 akalis.
  • The Nankana tragedy led to the involvement of Sikhs on a large scale in the national movement.
  • Keys Affair: In October 1921, the government refused to surrender the possession fo the keys of the Toshakhana of the golden temple of the Akalis. This led to protests. Leaders like Baba Kharak Singh and Master Tara Singh were arrested. Later, the government surrendered the keys to keep the Sikhs from revolting.
  • Guru ka Bagh gurudwara in Ghokewala was under dispute as the mahant there claimed that the land attached to it was his personal possession. When few akalis cut down a tree on that land they were arrested on the complain of the mahant. Seeing this thousands of akalis came and started cutting down the trees. About 4000 akalis were arrested. Later, the government didn’t arrest but started beating them up severly. But the alakis kept turning up. Ultimately the government had to surrender.
  • The akali movement made a huge contribution to the national awakening of Punjab.
  • However, the movement encouraged a certain religiosity which would be later utilized by communalism.
  • In 1923, the Congress decided to take active steps towards the eradication of untouchability.
  • The basic strategy it adopted was to educate and mobilize opinion among caste hindus.
  • Immediately after the Kakinada session, the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee (KPCC) took up the eradication of untouchability as an urgent issue.
  • KPCC adeiced to organize an procession on the temple roads in Vaikom, a village in Travancore, on 30 March 1924.
  • During the processions, the satyagrahis were arrested and sentenced to imprisonment.
  • On the death of Maharaja in August 1924, the Maharani released the Satyagrahis.
  • Gandhiji visited Kerala to discuss the opening of temple with Maharani. A compromise was reached whereby all roads except for the ones in the Sankethan of the temple were opened to the harijans.
  • In his Kerala tour, Gandhi didn’t visit a single temple because avarnas were kept out of them.
  • The weakness of the anti-caste movement was that through it aroused people against untouchability it lacked a strategy of ending the caste system itself.

 

 

Relief and structure of Meghalaya

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Relief and structure of Meghalaya

Meghalaya is an upland area formed by a detached block of the Deccan plateau. Its summits vary in elevation from 4,000 to 6,000 feet (1,220 to 1,830 metres). The Garo Hills in the west rise abruptly from the Brahmaputra River valley to about 1,000 feet (300 metres) and then merge with the Khasi Hills and Jaintia Hills, adjacent highland systems that form a single massif of tablelands separated by a series of eastward-trending ridges. The southern faces of the plateau, overlooking the Bangladesh lowlands, is particularly steep.

Meghalaya Plateau belongs to the part of Super Continent of Gondwanaland, i.e., the Peninsular table land, but is detached from the latter by the intervening spread of the alluvium of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The structural history of the region reveals several phases of erosion, sedimentation, diastrophism, intrusion, movements of land and sea, and emission.

The plateau is mainly made up of rocks of the pre-Cambrian age. The pre-Tertiary and Tertiary rocks occur above these rocks on its western and southern margins. Stratigraphically the rocks of the plateau belong to five broad geological formations, namely the Archaean gneissic complex, the Shillong group of rocks, the lower Gondwana, the Sylhet traps, and Cretaceous – Tertiary – Quarternary Sediment.

The Archaean-gneissic complex occupies the central and northern parts of Meghalaya Plateau. The rocks include gneiss, granite, quartzites, schists, etc. The Shillong group of rocks lying unconformably over the gneissic complex, occurs in the central and eastern parts of the plateau These include phylite, quartzites, schists and conglomerates.

The lower Gondwana rocks are found in the western part of Garo Hills which include pebble beds, sandstones and shale. The Sylhet trap is exposed along the southern border of the Khasi Hills in an east-west direction, and rests unconformably over the eroded pre-Cambrian basement rocks. These rocks are predominantly basalt, rhyolite and acid tuffs.

The Garo Hills region of the State, in its greater portion, is formed of gneissic rocks overlaid by sandstones and 1 conglomerates of Cretaceous-Tertiary system.

The sediments of this system of rocks are known as the Garo group in the region. This group of rocks is again divided into the Simsang, Baghmara and the Chengapara formations. The Simsang is the oldest formation in the Garo group which lies conformably over the Kopili series (the youngest formation of the Jaintia group of Cretaceous – Tertiary sediments), and consists of siitstone and sandstone.

the Baghmara formation includes sand, pebble, conglomerates and clay which lie conformably over the Simsang formation. The Chengapara formation consists of sand, siitstone and clay. On the top of these Cretaceous-Tertiary formations rests limestone of Numulitic age, while sandstones of upper Tertiary origin form low hiiis along the Mymensing border.Relief and structure of Meghalaya

The Khasi Hills are located east of the Garo Hills. The other Khasi tribes did not have princes but their twenty petty states (hima), and sometimes even smaller tribal divisions, are led by one or two Chiefs -selected in various ways- usually styled Siem, Syiem.  The names of these chieftainships are : Bhawal, Cherra (or Sohra; capital Cherrapunji), Dwara (capital Hat Dwara), Jirang, Khyri(e)m (capital Cherrapunjee, under a Radja), Langrin, Lungiong, Maharam, Malai Sohmat, Marriw, Mawdon, Mawiang, Mawlong, Mawphlang, Mylliem (including Shillong city, the colonial capital of all Tribal Assam), Nobosohphoh, Noglwai, Nongkhlaw, Nongspung, Nongstoin, Pamsanggut, Rambrai, Shella, Sohiong. or Sardar .

The Jaintia Hills are located further to the east from the Khasi Hills. The twelve Chiefs of the elaka (tribal province) of the Jaintia, a Khasi subtribe of the) Pantars = Syntengs tribes, are styled Dolloi, and the land is called after them in Khasi: KA RI KHADAR DOLLOI ‘Land of 12 Tribal Chiefs‘) – they are in Nartiang itself (see the Raja, uniquely also styled, as premier Chief: U Kongsong), and in Amwi, Jowai, Lakadong, Mynso, Nongbah, Nongjngi, Nongphyllut, Nongtallang, Raliang, Shangpung, Sutnga (see below; also cited as seat of a Syiem)  Above them is the only true princely ruler of the area, the Raja of Jaintiapur.

His winter capital is now in Bangladesh, with his summer residence shifted from Sutnga (where the family started as Syiems) to Nartiang; also a palace in the commercial center Borghat.  The Jaintia Hills used to be a part of the Jaintia Hills District. The district has been bifurcated into two separate districts,namely, East Jaintia Hills and West Jaintia Hills on 31 July 2012.

 

Antiquity and stratification of the Vedic literature; Society, economy and religion during Early (Rig-Vedic) period.

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Although the Rig Veda deals with devotional work of religious nature, yet it gives a vivid picture of the early Vedic civilization. The Vedic Civilization is best understood from the social life, political organisation, economic life and religious beliefs. The Kula or family was the basic unit of Rig-Vedic society. The Kula was headed by a Kulapa, who was usually the eldest member. Society was essentially patriarchal and birth of son was desired repeatedly. Status of women was equal to men in the early Rig-Vedic society. Both polygamy and polyandry were in vogue.

The Evolution of Varna System

Social strata used to exist in the Harappan civilization also. Similarly, there was a threefold division of society {priests, rulers and producers} in the Iranian society also. However, what happened in Indian sub-continent was unique and extraordinary. In the evolution of Kingship in the later Vedic era, the priests (Brahmans) and rulers (Khsatriyas) consolidated their respective position in the society. The producers split into two groups. The free peasants and traders formed the group Vaishya while the slaves, laborers, artisans degraded to fourth group Shudra. This was based on occupation initially but later got rigid on the basis of birth. Despite of a small population, the people got compartmentalized into these four groups as per Varnashrama Dharma.

Marriage and women

Despite of the patriarchal character of the family, the position of women was much better in the Rig Vedic period than in later times. They could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands. Five women have been mentioned as composers of hymns out of which Ghosha, Lopamudra and Apala are famous. Girls were normally married off after puberty (between the age of 16 and 17). Unmarried girls grew up in the home of their parents. Some unmarried woman like Visvavara and Apala offered sacrifices on their own. There are also evidences of widow remarriage in the Rig-Veda.

Education

In the early Rig-Vedic era, entire instruction was given orally. Art of writing does not seem to have developed yet. In the well-known Gayatri mantra there is a prayer to Savitri for the stimulation of the intellect. There were women teachers. Many of them possessed the highest spiritual knowledge. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars. Rishis who composed hymns founded their own schools separately to teach their pupils and every person among the vis was entitled to learn Vedic mantras. In the later-Vedic phase, with the development of Varnashrama, education began with an investiture ceremony (upanayan). Since Upanayan was confined to three upper Varnas, the sudras were not entitled to education. Sometimes girls were also encouraged. When teacher was satisfied with the student, last sermon called snatakopadesa (kind of convocation) was delivered.

 

 

Institution of Gotra

Gotra or cowpen was a mechanism for widening social ties a new relationship was established between hitherto unrelated people. It is possible that animals were herded in common and such a place was known as gotra and from this it acquired the character of an exogamous institution.

Amusements and entertainments

Music, both vocal and instrumental, was well known. Vedic Aryans played on the Vina and flute Vana to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals. Few claim that Dhrupad of Indian classical music originated in Vedic Era. Dancing was common. The chariot race was a favourite sport and source of entertainment. Chariot race was a symbolic source of political authority of the king. The fascination of gambling and the ruin caused by its addiction find mention in the Rig-Veda.

House holding

The Griha sutra prescribes a code of conduct, which gives a fairly good idea of the manners and etiquette of the later-Vedic age. A guest (atithi) was welcomed at all times and special guests, like the guru, the king, and the father-in-law, etc. were given special treatment. Respect for the elders self-restraint, moral purity, abstinence of all kinds and faithfulness were some of the virtues. Cleanliness was a passion. Daily bath, washing of the feet and hands every now and then, and purifying the atmosphere with Vedic  mantras were a part of ritual when ritualism  acquired special  significance in the later-Vedic age. It became one of the many sources of the development of hierarchy and the supremacy for the Brahmanas.

Eating Habits

The main cereal produced by the early Rig-Vedic people was Yava or barley. Wheat (Godhuma) appears in later Vedic texts only. Yava was also a generic term for various kinds of cereals. ilk, Milk products and cattle meat belonged to their food habits. Alcoholic / Non-alcoholic drinks were known and common. Soma and Sura are two popular liquors. Sura may be a kind of beer or wine.

Dress code

Two pieces of cloth were normally worn- the upper garment was called uttariya and the lower one was known as antariya. The dress for the male and the female did not differ much.

Health and hygiene

Everyone aspired for and everyone was blessed to live for a hundred years. Epilepsy was common and it affected the children as well. Superstitions and magical charms were employed to cure the diseases. Miraculous cures are ascribed to the twin-gods, the Ashvins, who are the great healers of diseases and experts in the surgical art. They were divine physicians who restored eyesight and cured the blind, sick and maimed.

 

Rig Vedic Economy

Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral. They domesticated Pashu (which included cattle, horse and even human beings), as opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle was synonymous with wealth and a wealthy person was called Gomat. Cattle was so important that the terms of battle  were derived  from Gau itself, such as Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the king. Duhitri was the term used for daughter because she used to milk the cow. One of the four categories of gods was known as Gojata, i.e. cowborn. When the Vedic people encountered buffalo, they called it Gauri and Gavala or cow-haired. The cattle obtained in raids were divided among the families. Cattle formed an important item of donation and it may also have formed a part of bali, the tribute given to the raja by the clan or Vis members. The cattle in general and cow in particular was the main medium of exchange during the Rig Vedic period. The economy was based upon agriculture. The people were well acquainted with the sowing, harvesting, threshing and various agro seasons. The people were pastoral, Cow was revered but the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The gifts to the priests were in terms of number of Cows and women slaves but NOT in measurements of lands.

Crafts and Metallurgy

All kinds of crafts were practiced. There were potters, Chariot makers, carpenters, and weaver and leather workers. The metal work was known  as follows: Copper was known as “Ayas” Gold was known as Hiranya Iron was also known as was known as Shyama or Krishna Ayas.

Religion

There were no places of worship like temples. There are no indications in the Rig-Veda of any “temples reared by mortal hands” and consecrated as places of worship. On the contrary, every householder, every patriarch of his family, lighted the sacrificial fire in his own home and poured libations of the Soma juice and prayed to the gods for happiness to his family, for abundant crops and wealth and cattle, for immunity from sickness, and for victory over the black aborigines. Natural phenomena were conceived as the expression of some spiritual different appearances of various gods.

Simon Commission (1927)

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  • Indian Statutory Commission chaired by Simon to go into the question of further constitutional reform
  • All its seven members were Englishmen. Clement Attlee was one of the members.
  • Lord Birkinhead was the secretary of state at that time
  • At its Madras session in 1927 INC decided to boycott the commission “at every stage and in every form”
    • ML and Hindu Mahasabha supported Congress
  • Nehru Report, 1928
    • Dominion status
    • Contained Bill of Rights
    • No state religion
    • Federal form
    • Linguistically determined provinces
    • No separate electorates
    • All Party Convention, held at Calcutta in 1928, failed to pass the report
    • Muslim league rejected the proposals of the report
    • Jinnah drafted his fourteen points
    • Hindu Mahasabha and Sikh League also objected
  • Poorna Swaraj
    • Resolution passed at the Lahore session in 1929
    • On 31 December 1929, the tri-color was hoisted
    • On 26 January 1930, Independence Day was celebrated

 

Revolt of 1857: first war of indian independence

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  • During the Governor-General Lord Canning
  • May 11, 1857. The Meerut incident. Capture of Delhi. Proclaiming B S Jazar as the emperor.
  • Almost half the Company’s sepoy strength of 232224 opted out of their loyalty to their regimental colours.
  • Kanpur: Nana Saheb; Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal; Bareilly: Khan Bahadur; Jagdishpur (Ara): Kunwar Singh; Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai
  • Only the Madras army remained totally loyal. Sikh regiment as well remained largely loyal.

Causes for the revolt

The revolt was a result of the accumulated grievances of the people against Company’s administration and a loathing for the character and policies of the colonial rule. The causes can be classified as social, economic, religious and military.

WHY DID THE SEPOYS REVOLT?

  • The conditions of service in the Company’s army and cantonments increasingly came into conflict with the religious beliefs and prejudices of the sepoys.
  • The unhappiness of the sepoys first surfaced in 1824 when the 47th Regiment of Barrackpur was ordered to go to Burma. To the religious Hindu, crossing the sea meant loss of caste. The sepoys refused. The regiment was disbanded and those who led the opposition were hanged.
  • The rumors about the Government’s secret designs to promote conversions to Christianity further exasperated the sepoys.
  • The greased cartridges
  • They were also unhappy with the emoluments
  • Discrimination and racism
  • Misery brought to the peasants by the British rule. E.g. the land revenue system imposed in Oudh, where about 75000 sepoys came from, was very harsh.
  • The civilians also participated

 

  • After the capture of Delhi, a letter was issued to the neighboring states asking for support.
  • A court of administrators was established in Delhi
  • Ill-equipped, the rebels carried on the struggle for about a year
  • The country as a whole was not behind them. The merchants, intelligentsia and Indian rulers not only kept aloof but actively supported the British.
  • Almost half the Indian soldiers not only did not revolt but fought against their own countrymen.
  • Apart from a commonly shared hatred for alien rule, the rebels had no political perspective or definite vision of the future
  • Delhi fell on September 20, 1857.
  • Rani of Jhansi died fighting on June 17, 1858
  • Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal hoping to revive the struggle.
  • Kunwar Singh died on May 9, 1958
  • Tantia tope carried on guerrilla warfare until April 1959 after which he was betrayed by a zamindar, captured and put to death.

Important Persons relating to the Revolt

 

Bahadur Shah Zafar: BSZ was the last Mughal emperor of India.

 

Nana Saheb

 

Rani Lakshmi Bai

 

Kunwar Singh

 

Nawab Wajid Ali Shah

 

Birjis Qadr: The son of Wajid Ali Shah and the leader of the revolt in Lucknow.

 

Shah Mal: He belonged  to a clan of Jat cultivators in parganan Barout in UP. During the revolt, he mobilized the headmen and cultivators of chaurasee des (84 villages: his kinship area), moving at night from village to village, urging people to rebel against the British.

 

Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah: Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah was one of the many maulvis who played an

important part in the revolt of 1857. 1856, he was seen moving from village to village preaching jehad (religious war) against the British and urging people to rebel. he was elected by the mutinous 22nd Native Infantry as their leader. He fought in the famous Battle of Chinhat in which the British forces under Henry Lawrence were defeated.

 

Begum Hazrat Mahal:

 

Chapter 2: Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings

  • The backbone of the rebellions, their mass base and striking power came from the rack-rented peasants, ruined artisans and demobilized soldiers

CAUSES

  • The major cause of the civil rebellions was the rapid changes the British introduced in the economy, administration and land revenue system.
  • The revenues were enhanced by increasing taxes.
  • Thousands of zamindars and poligars lost control over their land and its revenue either due to the extinction of their rights by the colonial state or by the forced sale of their rights over land because of their inability to meet the exorbitant land revenue demanded.
  • The economic decline of the peasantry was reflected in twelve major and numerous minor famines from 1770 to 1857
  • The new courts and legal system gave a further fillip to the dispossessors of land and encouraged the rich to oppress the poor.
  • The police looted, oppressed and tortured the common people at will.
  • The ruin of Indian handicraft industries pauperized millions of artisans
  • The scholarly and priestly classes were also active in inciting hatred and rebellion against foreign rule.
  • Very foreign character of the British rule

REBELLIONS

  • From 1763 to 1856, there were more than forty major rebellions apart from hundreds of minor ones.
  • Sanyasi Rebellion: (1763-1800)
  • Chuar uprising (1766-1772 & 1795-1816); Rangpur and Dinajpur (1783); Bishnupur and Birbhum (1799); Orissa zamindars (1804-17) and Sambalpur (1827-40) and many others

WHY FAILED?

  • These rebellions were local in their spread and were isolated from each other.
  • They were the result of local causes and grievances, and were also localized in their effects.
  • Socially, economically and politically, the semi-feudal leaders of these rebellions were backward looking and traditional in outlook.
  • The suppression of the civil rebellions was a major reason why the revolt of 1857 did not spread to South India and most of Eastern and Western India.

 

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