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Space Technology- Indian space programs.

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Application of Satellites for different purposes

 

Despite being a developing economy with its attendant problems, India has effectively developed space technology and has applied it successfully for its rapid development and today is offering a variety of space services globally.

Indian Space Program:

During the formative decade of 1960s, space research was conducted by India mainly with the help of sounding rockets. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was formed in 1969. Space research activities were provided additional fillip with the formation of the Space Commission and the Department of Space by the government of India in 1972. And, ISRO was brought under the Department of Space in the same year.

In the history of the Indian space programme, 70s were the era of Experimentation during which experimental satellite programmes like Aryabhatta, Bhaskara, Rohini and Apple were conducted. The success of those programmes, led to era of operationalisation in 80s during which operational satellite programmes like INSAT and IRS came into being. Today, INSAT and IRS are the major programmes of ISRO.

For launching its spacecraft indigenously, India is having a robust launch vehicle programme, which has matured to the state of offering launch services to the outside world. Antrix, the commercial arm of the Department of Space, is marketing India’s space services globally. Fruitful co-operation with other space faring nations, international bodies and the developing world is one of the main characteristics of India’s space programme.

The most significant milestone of the Indian Space Programme during the year 2005-2006 was the successful launch of PSLV-C6. On 5 May 2005, the ninth flight of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C6) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota successfully placed two satellites – the 1560 kg CARTOSTAR-1 and 42 kg HAMSAT – into a predetermined polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO). Coming after seven launch successes in a row, the success of PSLV-C6 further demonstrated the reliability of PSLV and its capability to place payloads weighing up to 1600 kg satellites into a 600 km high polar SSO.

The successful launch of INSAT-4A, the heaviest and most powerful satellite built by India so far; on 22 December 2005 was the other major event of the year 2005-06. INSAT-4A is capable of providing Direct-To-Home (DTH) television broadcasting services.

Besides, the setting up of the second cluster of nine Village Resource Centres (VRCs) was an important ongoing initiative of the Department of Space during the year. VRC concept integrates the capabilities of communications and earth observation satellites to provide a variety of information emanating from space systems and other IT tools to address the changing and critical needs of rural communities.

In October 2008, the first lunar mission launched by ISRO. The spacecraft, Chandrayaan took off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre and it operated till August 2009. The project was announced by former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee, as part of his independence day speech in 2003. The greatest achievement of this lunar project was the discovery of a large number of water molecules in moon. ISRO plans to launch its second lunar mission, Chandrayaan 2 by 2018.

In 2014, Mangalyaan, India’s first interplanetary mission was launched, making ISRO the fourth space agency to reach Mars. Mangalyaan gained worldwide repute as being the least expensive Mars mission till date.

Recently India has launched 104 staellites at one go, which is a world record. The previous world record is with the Russian space agency with 37 satellites at one go.

India has been launching heavy satellites on its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) but so far it has only been used for domestic satellites.In recent months though, there have been queries from foreign companies for launches on the GSLV.

 

Application of satellites for different purposes:

Satellites based on application can be categorized as follows:

Earth Observation satellite->

Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, ISRO has launched many operational remote sensing satellites. Today, India has one of the largest constellations of remote sensing satellites in operation. Currently, *thirteen* operational satellites are in Sun-synchronous orbit – RESOURCESAT-1, 2, 2A CARTOSAT-1, 2, 2A, 2B, RISAT-1 and 2, OCEANSAT-2, Megha-Tropiques, SARAL and SCATSAT-1, and *four* in Geostationary orbit- INSAT-3D, Kalpana & INSAT 3A, INSAT -3DR. Varieties of instruments have been flown onboard these satellites to provide necessary data in a diversified spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to cater to different user requirements in the country and for global usage. The data from these satellites are used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban planning, rural development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, ocean resources and disaster management.

Communication satellite->

The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic communication satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational communication satellites placed in Geo-stationary orbit. Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a major revolution in India’s communications sector and sustained the same later. GSAT-18 joins the constellation of INSAT System consisting 14 operational satellites, namely – INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR, 3DR and GSAT-6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15 and 16.

The INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-bands provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite newsgathering, societal applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue operations.

 

Navigation satellite->

Satellite Navigation service is an emerging satellite based system with commercial and strategic applications. ISRO is committed to provide the satellite based Navigation services to meet the emerging demands of the Civil Aviation requirements and to meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on the independent satellite navigation system. To meet the Civil Aviation requirements, ISRO is working jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI) in establishing the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) system. To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing services based on the indigenous system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation system called Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).

(a) GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN):

This is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) implemented jointly with Airport Authority of India (AAI). The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy and integrity required for civil aviation applications and to provide better Air Traffic Management over Indian Airspace. The system will be interoperable with other international SBAS systems and provide seamless navigation across regional boundaries. The GAGAN Signal-In-Space (SIS) is available through GSAT-8 and GSAT-10.

(b) Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) : NavIC

This is an independent Indian Satellite based positioning system for critical National applications. The main objective is to provide Reliable Position, Navigation and Timing services over India and its neighbourhood, to provide fairly good accuracy to the user. The IRNSS will provide basically two types of services

Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

Restricted Service (RS)

Space Segment consists of seven satellites, three satellites in GEO stationary orbit (GEO) and four satellites in Geo Synchronous Orbit (GSO) orbit with inclination of 29° to the equatorial plane. This constellation of seven satellites was named as “NavIC” (Navigation Indian Constellation) by the Honourable Prime Minister of India, Mr. Narendra Modi and dedicated to the Nation on the occasion of successful launch of IRNSS-1G, the seventh and last satellite of NavIC. All the satellites will be visible at all times in the Indian region. All the seven Satellites of NavIC, namely, IRNSS-1A, 1B, 1C, ID,1E, 1F and 1G were successfully launched on July 02, 2013, Apr 04, 2014, Oct 16, 2014, Mar 28, 2015, Jan 20, 2016, Mar 10, 2016 and Apr 28, 2016 respectively and all are functioning satisfactorily from their designated orbital positions.

Ground Segment is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the IRNSS constellation. It provides the monitoring of the constellation status, computation of the orbital and clock parameters and navigation data uploading. The Ground segment comprises of TTC & Uplinking Stations, Spacecraft Control Centre, IRNSS Timing Centre, CDMA Ranging Stations, Navigation Control Centre and Data Communication Links. Space segment is compatible with single frequency receiver for Standard Positioning Service (SPS), dual frequency receiver for both SPS & RS service and a multi mode receiver compatible with other GNSS providers.

 

Experimental satellite->

ISRO has launched many small satellites mainly for the experimental purposes. This experiment include Remote Sensing, Atmospheric Studies, Payload Development, Orbit Controls, recovery technology etc. Example- INS-1A, INS-1B, YOUTHSAT, APPLE

 

Small satellite->

The small satellite project is envisaged to provide platform for stand-alone payloads for earth imaging and science missions within a quick turn around time. For making the versatile platform for different kinds of payloads, two kinds of buses have been configured and developed.

Indian Mini Satellite -1 (IMS-1): IMS-1 bus has been developed as a versatile bus of 100 kg class which includes a payload capability of around 30 kg. The bus has been developed using various miniaturization techniques. The first mission of the IMS-1 series was launched successfully on April 28th 2008 as a co-passenger along with Cartosat 2A. Youthsat is second mission in this series and was launched successfully along with Resourcesat 2 on  20th April 2011.

Indian Mini Satellite -2 (IMS-2) Bus: IMS-2 Bus is evolved as a standard bus of 400 kg class which includes a payload capability of around 200kg. IMS-2 development is an important milestone as it is envisaged to be a work horse for different types of remote sensing applications. The first mission of IMS-2 is SARAL.  SARAL is a co-operative mission between ISRO and CNES with payloads from CNES and spacecraft bus from ISRO.

 

Student/Academic satellite->

ISRO has influenced educational institutions by its activities like making satellites for communication, remote sensing and astronomy. The launch of Chandrayaan-1 increased the interest of universities and institutions towards making experimental student satellites.

Classification of Eco-system

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  1. Natural Ecosystem-

Terrestrial- Forests, Grasslands, Deserts

Aquatic- Fresh Waters, Saline Waters, Marine Waters

Ecotone :- a zone of junction between two or more diverse ecosystems. For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem.

Characteristics of Ecotone

It may be very narrow or quite wide. It has the conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is a zone of tension.

It is linear as it shows progressive increase in species composition of one in coming community and a simultaneous decrease in species of the other out going adjoining community.

A well developed ecotones contain some organisms which are entirely different from that of the adjoining communities.

Sometimes the number of species and the population density of some of the species is much greater in this zone than either community. This is called edge effect For example the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone between the forest and the desert.

Peasant Uprisings

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  • Many dispossessed peasants took to robbery and dacoity.
  • Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
  • By the end of 1860 indigo cultivation was virtually wiped out from the districts of Bengal
  • A major reason for the success of the Indigo revolt was the tremendous initiative, cooperation, organization and discipline of the ryots.
  • Another was the complete unity among Hindu and Muslim peasants
  • Another significant feature was the role of intelligentsia of Bengal which organized a powerful campaign in support of the rebellious peasantry.
  • The government’s response to the revolt was rather restrained and not as harsh as in the case of civil rebellions and tribal uprisings.
  • The government appointed the Indigo Commission to enquire into the problems of indigo cultivation. The report of the commission exposed the coercion and corruption in indigo cultivation
  • The government issued a notification in November 1960 that ryots could not be compelled to sow indigo and all disputes were to be settled by legal means.

Late Peasant Movements

  • Three important peasant movements of the early twentieth century:
    • Kisan Sabha and Eka movements in Avadh in UP
    • Mappila rebellion in Malabar
    • Bardoli Satyagrah in Gujarat
  • The UP Kisan Sabha was set up in February 1918 through the efforts of Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narain Dwivedi with the support of Madan Mohan Malviya.
  • By June 1919, it had established about 450 branches in 173 tehsils of the province.
  • In August 1921, Mappila (Muslim) tenants rebelled. Their grievances related to lack of any security of tenure, renewal fees, high rents and other oppressive labndlord exactions.
  • The no-tax movement was launched in Bardoli taluq of Surat district in Gujarat in 1928.

 

The Working Class Movements

  • There were some working class movements in second half of 19th However, they were impulsive and not very well organized.
  • The early nationalists had a lukewarm attitude towards the question of workers. This war because initially Congress wanted to focus on issues which were of common concern to all the people of India.
  • There was a difference in attitude of the nationalists towards workers in indigenous and European enterprises.
  • The most important feature of the labour movement during the Swadeshi days was the shift from agitation and struggles on purely economic questions to the involvement of the worker with the wider political issues of the day.
  • The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in 1920.
  • IN 1918 Gandhi founded the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association.
  • The AITUC in November 1927 took a decision to boycott the Simon Commission and many workers participated in the massive Simon boycott demonstrations.
  • Alarmed by worker’s movement, the government enacted repressive laws like the Public Safety Act and Trade Disputes Acts and arrested the entire radical leadership of the labour movement and launched the Meerut Conspiracy Case against them.
  • The labour movement suffered a major setback partially due to this government offensive and partially due to a shift in stance of the communist led wing of the movement.
  • From the end of 1928, the communists stopped aligning them with the national movement.
  • Communists got isolated within the AITUC and were thrown out in the split of 1931.
  • BY 1934, the communists re-entered the mainstream nationalist politics.
  • The working class of Bombay held an anti-war strike on 2 October, 1939.
  • With the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, the communists changed their policy and asked the people to support the allied forces instead of holding anti-war strikes.
  • The communists dissociated themselves from the Quit India movement launched in 1942.
  • The last years of colonial rule also saw a remarkably sharp increase in strikes on economic issues all over the country – the all India strike of the post and telegraph department employees being the most well known among them.

 

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Social Reformers & Their Work AND Freedom fighters

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Rajaram Mohun   Laid stress on the study of English & established the Hindu College in Calcutta
Roy   alongwith David Hare.
Maharishi   The grandfather of Rabindranath Tagore. He inspired a number of thinkers like
Devendranath   Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar & Akshay Kumar Datta who became Brahmo Samaj
Tagore   members.  He  din’t  perform  his  fathers  antyeshti  samskara  as  it  involved  idol
    worship.
Keshav Chandra   He was greatly inspired with the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus Christ & hence he

 

 

 

Sen came in confrontation with Devendranath Tagore. Consequently the Brahmo Samaj
  was split into the Brahmo Samaj of India under him & Adi Brahmo Samaj under
  Devendranath. He opposed child marriage but married her own minor daughter to
  Maharaja of Cooch-Behar. Hence there was a further split into Neo Brahmo Samaj
  under him & Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
Ishwar Chandra Became principal of Sanskrit college in Calcutta. Opened the Sanskrit college for
Vidyasagar non  Brahmin  students.  He  founded  ‘Bethune  School  at  Calcutta’  to  encourage
  female education.
Bankim Chandra First graduate of Calcutta University which was estd in 1857 based on the lines of
  Macaulay Minute. He became a deputy collector. Wrote the famous Bande Matram
  (Anand Math) & published Banga Darshan magazine.
Ramakrishna Became a priest in the temple of Goddess Kali at Dakshineshwar.
Paramhamsa (1836-86)
Swami In 1893 he attened the Parliament of Religions at Chicago. In 1897 he established
Vivekanand the  Ramakrishna  Mission.  His  disciple,  Sister  Nivedita  even  helped  many
(1863-1902) revolutionaries from Bengal directly.
Swami Dayananda Known in early life as Mul Shankar & born in Gujarat. Received his education at
1824-83 the feet of Swami Virajananda at Mathura. Founded Arya Samaj in 1875 based on
  a set of 28 principles (later 10). He estd the HQ of Arya Samaj at Lahore. Passed
  away on Diwali at Jodhpur following the mixing of glass powder in his drink.
  Through his Satyartha Prakasha he emphasized Vedas. He laid emphasis on the
  worship  of  a  formless  god  &  abandonment  of  idolatory.  He  emphasized  on
  Ashrama system of education. He stressed on swadeshi, swadharma, swabhasha &
  swarajya. He considered Vedas as infallible.
Jyotibha Phule In  1873  he  founded  Satya  Shodhak  Samaj.  Gave  testimony  before  Hunter
  Commission against Christian missionaries. Later given the title ‘Mahatma’.
Sayyid Ahmad In 1875 founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh which later
Khan became Aligarh University. Opposed polygamy, purdah, abolition of the practice of
  easy divorce, reform in madrasa.
  Freedom Fighters
Lokmanya Tilak Introduced the celebration of Ganesh Chaturthi & Shivaji festivals. Paticipated in
1856-1920 Home Rule Movement in 1916. Called by Britishers as ‘Biggest Traitor’ & ‘Father
  of Indian dissatisfaction’
Lala Lajpat Rai Sher-e-Punjab. Was sent to Jail at Mandey on the charges of seditious activities.
Sri Aurobindo His development of National education & editing of Bande Mataram (started by
Ghosh Bipin Chandra Pal) gave momentum to Bengal partition movement. Left Baroda to
  work in the National College in Calcutta.
Chapekar Brothers Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna. Killed two British officials Rand &
  Aryst. Celcbrated Shivaji & Ganesh Utsavs.
Savarkar Brothers Ganesh  Savarkar,  Vinayak  Damodar  Savarkar  &  Narayana  Savarkar.  V.D.
  Savarkar organized the New India Association in London. Organizing lectures at
  the  India  House  founded  by  Shyamji  Krishna  Verma.  He  was  linked  to  the
  assassination  of  Jackson  at  Aurangabad.  Sentenced  to  imprisonment  in  the
  Andamans from 1911-24.
Shyamji Krishna India  House  had  become  centre  of  V.D  Savarkar,  Sardar  Singh  Rana,  Madam
Verma Bhikaji kama & Madan Lal Dhingra.
Madam Kama Represented India in the Interinational Conference at Stutteguard in Germany.

 

 

 

Madan Lal He short dead the assistant of the Secretary of State Curzon Wyllie. Gopal Krishna
Dhingra Gokhale clled it as a heinous act meant to spoil the name of India.
Chandra Shekhar Involved in the assassination of Saunders (officer who ordered the Lathi Charge in
Azad which Lala Lajpat was killed), alongwith Bhagat Singh & Rajguru. He had chalked
  out a plan to blow up the train in which the Viceroy Lord Irwin was traveling. He
  was killed in a police encounter  at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
Harkishen Talwar Shot  the  Governor  of  Punjab  but  the  latter  escaped  with  injuries  only  Later
  Harkishen was hanged.
Bhagat Singh In association with Chhabil Das & Yashpal he had founded the Punjab Naujavan
  Bharat Sabha.
Rani Gaidinliu Lead the Nagas in the revolt. Yadunaga was the other leader.
Subhas Chandra Passed  the Civils  in  1920 but  preferred to  serve  the  nationalist  cause. He  was
Bose elected  the  Mayor  of  Calcutta  in  1923  but  soon  arrested  &  sent  to  Mandalay.
  Elected President at the Haripura session of Congress in 1938. He left for Kabul
  along with his friend Bhagat Ram. From there he went to Germany & met Hitler.
  He was first addressed as Netaji in Germany.
Udham Singh Whilst living in England in 1940, Singh shot dead Sir Michael O’Dwyer, former
  Governor General of the Punjab.

 

Climate Change

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  • National Environmental Appraisal and Monitoring Authority has been setup

 

 

India UK

UK-India Business Climate Leaders Group has been constituted. Comprising of leading CEOs the group will work on synergystic business for carbon reduction and joint work to evolve national emission reduction strategies.

FDI could be streamlined into low carbon initiatives.

Read moreClimate Change

Biomes and Its types

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Biome

The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into enormous regions called biomes, which are characterized, by climate, vegetation, animal life and general soil type.

No two biomes are alike.

The most important climatic factors are temperature and precipitation.

  1. Tundra- Northern most region  adjoining the ice bound  poles. Devoid of trees except stunted shrubs in the southern part of tundra biome, ground flora includes lichen, mosses and sedges.

The typical animals are reindeer, arctic fox polar bear, snowy owl, lemming, arctic hare,  ptarmigan. Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent

 

  1. Taiga- Northern Europe, Asia and North America. Moderate temperature than tundra. Also known as boreal forest.

The dominating vegetation is coniferous evergreen mostly spruce, with some pine and firs. The fauna consists of small seed eating birds, hawks, fur bearing carnivores, little mink, elks, puma, Siberian tiger, wolverine, wolves etc.

 

  1. Temperate Deciduous Forest- Extends over Central and Southern Europe, Eastern North America, Western China, Japan, New Zealand etc.

Moderate average temperature and abundant  rainfall. These are generally the  most  productive agricultural areas of the earth The flora includes trees like beech, oak, maple and cherry. Most animals are the familiar vertebrates and invertebrates.

  1. Tropical rain forest- Tropical areas  in  the equatorial regions, which is  a bound  with  life.  Temperature and rainfall high.

Tropical rainforest covers about 7% of the earth’s surface & 40% of the world’s plant and animal species.

Multiple storey of broad-leafed evergreen tree species are in abundance.

Most animals and epiphytic plants(An epiphyte is a plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant)  are concentrated in the canopy or tree top zones

  1. Savannah- Tropical region: Savannah is most extensive in Africa

Grasses with scattered trees and fire resisting thorny shrubs.

The fauna include a great diversity of grazers and browsers such as antelopes, buffaloes, zebras, elephants and rhinoceros;  the carnivores include lion, cheetah, hyena; and mongoose, and many rodents

 

  1. Grassland- North America, Ukraine, etc . Dominated by grasses. Temperate conditions with rather low rainfall. Grasses dominate the vegetation. The fauna include large herbivores like bison, antelope, cattle, rodents, prairie dog, wolves, and a rich and diverse array of ground nesting bird

 

  1. Desert- Continental interiors with very low and sporadic rainfall with low humidity. The days are very hot but nights are cold. The flora is drought resistance vegetation such as cactus, euphorbias, sagebrush. Fauna : Reptiles, Mammals and birds.

Budgeting- Different types of Budgeting, Budgetary Control, Responsibility Accounting, Social Accounting, Different types of Deficits- Budgetary, Fiscal & Revenue Deficit.

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Table of Content:-

Budgeting-

  1. Different types of Budgeting
  2. Budgetary Control
  3. Responsibility Accounting
  4. Social Accounting

Different types of Deficits-

  1. Budgetary
  2. Fiscal
  3. Revenue Deficit

 


Budgeting

Budgeting is the process of estimating the availability of resources and then allocating them to various
activities of an organization according to a pre-determined priority. In most cases, approval of a budget also
means the approval to various spending units to utilize the allocated resources. Budgeting plays a criucial role in the socio-economic development of the nation.

Budget is the annual statement of the outlays and tax revenues of the government of India together with the laws and
regulations that approve and support those outlays and tax revenues . The budget has two purposes in general :
1. To finance the activities of the union government
2. To achieve macroeconomic objectives.

The Budget contains the financial statements of the government embodying the estimated receipts and expenditure for one financial year, ie.  it is a proposal of how much money is to be spent on what and how much of it will
be contributed by whom or raised from where during the coming year.

 


Different types of Budgeting

Economists throughout the globe have classified the budgets into different types based on the process and purpose of the budgets, which are as follows:-

1- The Line Item Budget

line-item budgeting was introduced in some countries in the late 19th centuary. Indeed line item
budgeting which is the most common form of budgeting in a large number of countries and suffers from
several drawbacks was a major reform initiative then. The line item budget is defined as “the budget in which the individual financial statement items are grouped by cost centers or departments .It shows the comparison between the financial data for the past  accounting or budgeting periods and estimated figures for the current or a future period”In a line-item system, expenditures for the budgeted period are listed according to objects of
expenditure, or “line-items.” These line items include detailed ceilings on the amount a unit would
spend on salaries, travelling allowances, office expenses, etc. The focus is on ensuring that the agencies
or units do not exceed the ceilings prescribed. A central authority or the Ministry of Finance keeps a
watch on the spending of various units to ensure that the ceilings are not violated. The line item budget approach is easy to understand and implement. It also facilitates centralized
control and fixing of authority and responsibility of the spending units. Its major disadvantage is that it
does not provide enough information to the top levels about the activities and achievements of
individual units.

2 – Performance Budgeting

a performance budget reflects the goal/objectives of the organization and spells out performance targets. These targets are sought to be achieved through a strategy. Unit costs are associated with the strategy and allocations are accordingly made for achievement of the objectives. A Performance Budget gives an indication of how the funds spent are expected to give outputs and ultimately the outcomes. However, performance budgeting has a limitation – it is not easy to arrive at standard unit costs especially in social programmes which require a multi-pronged approach.

3- Zero-based Budgeting

The concept of zero-based budgeting was introduced in the 1970s. As the name suggests, every budgeting cycle starts from scratch. Unlike the earlier systems where only incremental changes were made in the allocation, under zero-based budgeting every activity is evaluated each time a budget is made and only if it is established that the activity is necessary, are funds allocated to it. The basic purpose of Zero-based Budgeting is phasing out of programmes/ activities which do not have relevance anymore. However, because of the efforts involved in preparing a zero-based budget and institutional resistance related to personnel issues, no government ever implemented a full zero-based budget, but in modified forms the basic principles of ZBB are often used.

4- Programme Budgeting and Performance Budgeting

Programme budgeting in the shape of planning, programming and budgeting system (PPBS) was
introduced in the US Federal Government in the mid-1960s. Its core themes had much in common with
earlier strands of performance budgeting.
Programme budgeting aimed at a system in which expenditure would be planned and controlled by the
objective. The basic building block of the system was classification of expenditure into programmes,
which meant objective-oriented classification so that programmes with common objectives are
considered together.
It aimed at an integrated expenditure management system, in which systematic policy and expenditure planning would be developed and closely integrated with the budget. Thus, it was too ambitious in scope. Neither was adequate preparation time given nor was a stage-by-stage approach adopted. Therefore, this attempt to introduce PPBS in the federal government in USA did not succeed, although the concept of performance budgeting and programme budgeting endured.

 


Budgetary Control

Budgetary control refers to how well managers utilize budgets to monitor and control costs and operations in a given accounting period. In other words, budgetary control is a process for managers to set financial and performance goals with budgets, compare the actual results, and adjust performance, as it is needed.

Budgetary control involves the following steps :

(a) The objects are set by preparing budgets.

(b) The business is divided into various responsibility centres for preparing various budgets.

(c) The actual figures are recorded.

(d) The budgeted and actual figures are compared for studying the performance of different cost centres.

(e) If actual performance is less than the budgeted norms, a remedial action is taken immediately.

The main objectives of budgetary control are the follows:

1. To ensure planning for future by setting up various budgets, the requirements and expected performance of the enterprise are anticipated.

3. To operate various cost centres and departments with efficiency and economy.

4. Elimination of wastes and increase in profitability.

5. To anticipate capital expenditure for future.

6. To centralise the control system.

7. Correction of deviations from the established standards.

8. Fixation of responsibility of various individuals in the organization.

 

 


Responsibility Accounting

Responsibility accounting is an underlying concept of accounting performance measurement systems. The basic idea is that large diversified organizations are difficult, if not impossible to manage as a single segment, thus they must be decentralized or separated into manageable parts.

These decentralized parts are divided as : 1) revenue centers, 2) cost centers, 3) profit centers and 4) investment centers.

  1. revenue center (a segment that mainly generates revenue with relatively little costs),
  2. costs for a cost center (a segment that generates costs, but no revenue),
  3. a measure of profitability for a profit center (a segment that generates both revenue and costs) and
  4. return on investment (ROI) for an investment center (a segment such as a division of a company where the manager controls the acquisition and utilization of assets, as well as revenue and costs).

Advantages:-

  1. It provides a way to manage an organization that would otherwise be unmanageable.
  2. Assigning responsibility to lower level managers allows higher level managers to pursue other activities such as long term planning and policy making.
  3. It also provides a way to motivate lower level managers and workers.
  4. Managers and workers in an individualistic system tend to be motivated by measurements that emphasize their individual performances.

In India the budget is prepared from top to bottom approach and responsible accounting would not only improve the efficiency of Indian budgetary system but also will help in performance analysis.

Social Accounting

Social accounting is concerned with the statistical classification of the activities of human beings and human institutions in ways which help us to understand the operation of the economy as a whole.

Social accounting is the process of communicating the social and environmental effects of organizations’ economic actions to particular interest groups within society and to society at large

The components of social accounting are production, consumption, capital accumulation, government transactions and transactions with the rest of the world.

The uses of social accounting are as follows:

(1) In Classifying Transactions

(2) In Understanding Economic Structure

(3) In Understanding Different Sectors and Flows

(4) In Clarifying Relations between Concepts

(7) In Explaining Movements in GNP

(8) Provide a Picture of the Working of Economy

(9) In Explaining Interdependence of Different Sectors of the Economy

(10) In Estimating Effects of Government Policies

(11) Helpful in Big Business Organisations

(12) Useful for International Purposes

(13) Basis of Economic Models

 


Budgetary Deficit

Budgetary Deficit is the difference between all receipts and expenditure of the government, both revenue and capital. This difference is met by the net addition of the treasury bills issued by the RBI and drawing down of cash balances kept with the RBI. The budgetary deficit was called deficit financing by the government of India. This deficit adds to money supply in the economy and, therefore, it can be a major cause of inflationary rise in prices.

Budgetary Deficit of central government of India was Rs. 2,576 crores in 1980-81, it went up to Rs. 11,347 crores in 1990-91 to Rs. 13,184 crores in 1996-97.

The concept of budgetary deficit has lost its significance after the presentation of the 1997-98 Budget. In this budget, the practice of ad hoc treasury bills as source of finance for government was discontinued. Ad hoc treasury bills are issued by the government and held only by the RBI. They carry a low rate of interest and fund monetized deficit. These bills were replaced by ways and means advance. Budgetary deficit has not figured in union budgets since 1997-98. Since 1997-98, instead of budgetary deficit, Gross Fiscal Deficit (GFD) became the key indicator.

 


Fiscal Deficit
  • The difference between total revenue and total expenditure of the government is termed as fiscal deficit. It is an indication of the total borrowings needed by the government and thus amounts to all the borrowings of the government . While calculating the total revenue, borrowings are not included.
  • The gross fiscal deficit (GFD) is the excess of total expenditure including loans net of recovery over revenue receipts (including external grants) and non-debt capital receipts. The net fiscal deficit is the gross fiscal deficit less net lending of the Central government.
  • Generally fiscal deficit takes place either due to revenue deficit or a major hike in capital expenditure. Capital expenditure is incurred to create long-term assets such as factories, buildings and other development.
  • A deficit is usually financed through borrowing from either the central bank of the country or raising money from capital markets by issuing different instruments like treasury bills and bonds.

 


Revenue Deficit
  • Revenue deficit is concerned with the revenue expenditures and revenue receipts of the government. It refers to excess of revenue expenditure over revenue receipts during the given fiscal year.
  • Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure – Revenue Receipts
  • Revenue deficit signifies that government’s own revenue is insufficient to meet the expenditures on normal functioning of government departments and provisions for various services.
  • In India social expenditure like MNREGA is a revenue expenditure though a part of Plan expenditure.
  • Its targeted to be 2.9% of GPD in the year 2014-15, though the fiscal revenue and budget management act specifies it to be zero by 2008-09

 

 

Biosphere reserves

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What is a Biosphere Reserve?

A Biosphere Reserve is a special ecosystem or a specialized environment with a flora and fauna that require protection and nurturing. These reserves are managed and studied for the conservation of various life forms found here. They are subjects of scientific and natural interest.

According to UNESCO, “Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of biodiversity with its sustainable use. They are internationally recognized, nominated by national governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states where they are located”.

In 1971, UNESCO launched a global programme to formalize the scientific interaction between man and his natural environment. This programme is called the Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB).  Some 120 countries have joined in by establishing 669 biosphere reserves, including 16 transboundary reserves connected by the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The MAB is a worthy initiative aimed at conserving the ecology and environment which is essential to the very survival of many rare and dying species of flora and fauna. India, with its rich treasure trove of biodiversity, is geographically ideal for establishing, cultivating and maintaining a variety of biosphere reserves.

Biosphere Reserves in India

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Government of India defines Biosphere Reserves thus – “Biosphere Reserves (BRs) are representative parts of natural and cultural landscapes extending over large area of terrestrial or coastal/marine ecosystems or a combination thereof and representative examples of bio-geographic zones/province”. The Government of India has established about 18 different Biosphere Reserves in the country. Of these, 10 are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, set up under the auspices of the UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Not only are animals protected in the Biosphere Reserves of our country but the natural lifestyle of the indigenous people is also promoted. The communities in these regions are encouraged to retain their agrarian lifestyle and develop harmony with the plants and animals. The Biosphere Reserves of India correspond roughly to the IUCN Category V Protected Areas list and are often designed to include one or more national parks and national sanctuaries. The buffer zones of these Biosphere Reserves are open to economic activities as well.

 

 

  1. Criteria for designation of BR
  • A site that must contain an effectively protected and minimally disturbed core area of value of nature conservation.
  • The core area should be typical of a bio-geographical unit and large enough to sustain viable populations representing all trophic levels in the ecosystem.
  • The management authority to ensure the involvement/cooperation of local communities to bring variety of knowledge and experiences to link biodiversity conservation and  socio-economic development while managing and containing the conflicts.
  • Areas potential for preservation of traditional tribal or rural modes of living for harmonious use of environment.

Vision

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves of the MAB Programme consists of a dynamic and interactive network of sites of excellence. It fosters the harmonious integration of people and nature for sustainable development through participatory dialogue; knowledge sharing; poverty reduction and human well-being improvements; respect for cultural values and society’s ability to cope with change – thus contributing to the Millenium Development Goals. Accordingly, the WNBR is one of the main international tools to develop and implement sustainable development approaches in a wide array of contexts.

Mission

To ensure environmental, economic and social (including cultural and spiritual) sustainability through:

  1. The development and coordination of a worldwide network of places acting as demonstration areas and learning sites with the aim of maintaining and developing ecological and cultural diversity, and securing ecosystem services for human well-being;
  2. The development and integration of knowledge, including science, to advance our understanding of interactions between people and the rest of nature;
  3. Building global capacity for the management of complex socio-ecological systems, particularly through encouraging greater dialogue at the science-policy interface; environmental education; and multi-media outreach to the wider community.

 

  1. International Status of Biosphere Reserves (BR)

The UNESCO has introduced the designation ‘Biosphere Reserve’ for natural areas to minimize conflict between development and conservation. BRs are nominated by national government which meet a minimal set of criteria and adhere to minimal set of conditions for inclusion in the world network of Biosphere reserves under the Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme of UNESCO. Globally 621 BRs representing from 117 countries included in the network so far.

 

  1. Structure and functions of BR:

Biosphere reserves are demarcated into following 3 inter-related zones:

Core Zone

Core zone must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species, including higher order predators and may contain centres of endemism. Core areas often conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic reservoirs having exceptional scientific interest. A core zone being National Park or Sanctuary/protected/regulated mostly under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Whilst realizing that perturbation is an ingredient of ecosystem functioning, the core zone is to be kept free from l human pressures external to the system.

Buffer Zone

The buffer zone, adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities are managed in this area in the ways that help in protection of core zone in its natural condition. These uses and activities include restoration, demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism, fishing, grazing, etc; which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within BR, are likely to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological diversity.

Transition Zone

The transition area is the outermost part of a biosphere reserve. This is usually not delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation knowledge and management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the biosphere reserve.  This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for intensive recreation and other economic uses characteristics of the region.

 

  1. Tripartite functions of BR (Conservation, Development and logistic support)
  • To conserve the diversity and integrity of plants and animals within natural ecosystems
  • To safeguard genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends
  • To ensure sustainable use of natural resources through most appropriate technology for improvement of economic well-being of the local people
  • To provide areas for multi-faceted research and monitoring
  • To provide facilities for education and training
  1. Management

100% grant-in-aid is provided under the Biosphere Reserve scheme for the approved items of activities for implementation of Management Action Plans submitted by the concerned States/UT. The activities permitted under the scheme are broadly under the following areas:

  • Value addition activities
  • Sustainable use of threatened resources
  • Rehabilitation of landscapes of threatened species and ecosystems
  • Socio-economic upliftment of local communities
  • Maintenance and protection of corridor areas
  • Development of communication system and Networking
  • Development of Eco-tourism

BR scheme is different from other conservation related schemes. It has the focus on the welfare of local inhabitants through provision of supplementary and alternate livelihood support to the people in the buffer and transition zones in order to reduce biotic pressure on biodiversity of the natural reserves of core zone.

 

Main Characteristics of Biosphere Reserves

  1. Achieving the three international functions: conservation, development and logistic support.
  2. Outpacing traditional confined conservation zones, through appropriate zoning schemes combining core protected areas with zones where sustainable development is fostered by local dwellers and enterprises with often highly innovative and participative governance systems.
  3. Focusing on a multi-stakeholder approach with particular emphasis on the involvement of local communities in management;
  4. Fostering dialogue for conflict resolution of natural resource use.
  5. Integrating cultural and biological diversity, especially the role of traditional knowledge in ecosystem management.
  6. Demonstrating sound sustainable development practices and policies based on research and monitoring.
  7. Acting as sites of excellence for education and training.
  8. Participating in the World Network.

 

 

 

The bio-reserves in India

The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves in India,(categories roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or more National Parks and/or preserves, along with buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. Animals are protected and saved here.

The Indian government has established eighteen biosphere reserves of India which protect larger areas of natural habitat and often include one or more national parks and/or preserves, along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life.

The bio-reserves in India are:

 

Ten of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) list.

 

 

List of Biosphere reserves in India. Name of Biosphere reserve, Year of Notification, Total Area and Location is as follows…..
Sl. No. Name of Biosphere Reserve Date of Notification Area of the core / buffer/transition (In Km2) Location (States)
1 Nilgiri 01.09.1986 5520
(Core 1240 & Buffer 4280)		 Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka).
2 Nanda Devi 18.01.1988 5860.69
(Core 712.12, Buffer 5,148.570) & T. 546.34)		 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and Bageshwar districts (Uttarakhand).
3 Nokrek 01.09.1988 820
(Core 47.48 & Buffer 227.92, Transition Zone 544.60)		 Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya).
4 Great Nicobar 06.01.1989 885 (Core 705 & Buffer 180) Southern most islands of Andaman And Nicobar (A&N Islands).
5 Gulf of Mannar 18.02.1989 10,500 km2
Total Gulf area
(area of Islands 5.55 km2)		 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu).
6 Manas 14.03.1989 2837
(Core 391 & Buffer 2,446)		 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamprup and Darang districts (Assam).
7 Sunderbans 29.03.1989 9630
(Core 1700 & Buffer  7900)		 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra river system
(West Bengal).
8 Simlipal 21.06.1994 4374
(Core 845, Buffer 2129 & Transition 1400		 Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa).
9 Dibru-Saikhowa 28.07.1997 765
(Core 340 & Buffer 425)		 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts (Assam).
10 Dehang-Dibang 02.09.1998 5111.50
(Core 4094.80 &Buffer 1016.70)		 Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh.
11 Pachmarhi 03.03.1999 4926 Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.
12 Khangchendzonga 07.02.2000 2619.92
(Core 1819.34 & Buffer 835.92)		 Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim.
13 Agasthyamalai 12.11.2001 1828 Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoining areas in Kerala.
14 Achanakamar –    Amarkantak 30.3.2005 3835.51
(Core 551.55 & Buffer  3283.86)		 Covers parts of Anupur and Dindori districts of M.P. and parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattishgarh State.
15 Kachchh 29.01.2008 12,454 km2 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar and Patan Civil Districts of Gujarat State.
16 Cold Desert 28.08.2009 7770 Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal and Sarchu&Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.
17 Seshachalam Hills 20.09.2010 4755.997 Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh.
18 Panna 25.08.2011 2998.98 Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in Madhya Pradesh.

 

The International Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves

The International Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves is the primary scientific and technical Committee body advising the International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of the MAB Programme and its World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) and the Director General of UNESCO on matters pertaining to the WNBR.

The Committee advise the Director-General of UNESCO and the MAB-ICC on scientific and technical matters concerning the nomination of new sites and, changes and periodic reviews of sites already included in the WNBR, as well as the development, operation and monitoring of the WNBR which they constitute in accordance with the Seville Strategy and the Statutory Framework for the WNBR.

The Committee is composed of twelve members, who are appointed for four years by the Director-General, after consultation with the Member States and or the National Committees for the Man and the Biosphere Programme of the countries concerned.

The members of the Committee are selected for their scientific qualifications and for their experience in promoting and implementing the concept of biosphere reserve.

Designation of Biosphere Reserves

Article 5 of the 1995 Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserve, states the designation procedure for biosphere reserves. It reads as follows:

Article 5- Designation procedure

  1. Biosphere reserves are designated for inclusion in the Network by the International Co-ordinating Council (ICC) of the MAB Programme in accordance with the following procedure.
  2. a) States, through National MAB Committees where appropriate, forward nominations with supporting documentation to the secretariat after having reviewed potential sites, taking into account the criteria as defined in Article 4.
  3. b) The secretariat verifies the content and supporting documentation: in the case of incomplete nomination, the secretariat requests the missing information from the nominating State.
  4. c) Nominations will be considered by the Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves for recommendation to ICC.
  5. d) ICC of the MAB Programme takes a decision on nominations for designation.

The Director-General of UNESCO notifies the State concerned of the decision of ICC.

  1. States are encouraged to examine and improve the adequacy of any existing biosphere reserve, and to propose extension as appropriate, to enable it to function fully within the Network. Proposals for extension follow the same procedure as described above for new designations.3. Biosphere reserves which have been designated before the adoption of the present Statutory Framework are considered to be already part of the Network. The provisions of the Statutory Framework therefore apply to them.

Periodic Review Process

The periodic review is an important event in the life of a biosphere reserve. It enables a review, every ten years, of the functioning, zoning, scale of the biosphere reserve as well as the involvement of the populations living in the site. The Statutory Framework for the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) makes provision under Article 9 that “the status of each biosphere reserve should be subject to a periodic review every ten years, based on a report prepared by the concerned authority, on the basis of the criteria of Article 4, and forwarded to the secretariat by the State concerned. The report will be considered by the Advisory Committee for Biosphere Reserves for recommendation to International Co-ordinating Council.”

The periodic review represents an opportunity to carry out a qualitative survey of the actions implemented, their results. It’s a time to take stock of progress made by the biosphere reserve, especially as concerns the updating of knowledge, skills and expertise in resource and ecosystem management. It also provides an opportunity to discuss the updating of the zonation system and assess its relevance, question the objectives and means of management policies and examine the issues and problems tied to implementation. It is also a time to discuss weak points.  Its objective is to improve the quality of the biosphere reserves and their functioning as sites for testing and demonstrating approaches to sustainable development. To date, 356 periodic review reports were received by the Secretariat and examined by the MAB International co-ordinating Council.

Biosphere reserves which are not able to meet the criteria of Article 4 have been withdrawn by the countries from the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) (see Article 9 of the Statutory Framework). As of August 2013, 16 sites have been withdrawn.

Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound science. The Programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated by UNESCO in 1971. The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to conserve in situ all forms of life, along with its support system, in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems. The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in 1979, since then the network of biosphere reserves has increased to 631 in 119 countries across the world. Presently, there are 18 notified biosphere reserves in India.

 

 

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