rawan239

MANGROVES

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Mangroves are the characteristic littoral plant formation of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines.

are trees and bushes growing below the high water level of spring tides which exhibits remarkable capacity for salt water tolerance.

basically evergreen land plants growing on sheltered shores, typically on tidal flats, deltas, estuaries, bays, creeks and the barrier islands. require high solar radiation and have the ability to absorb fresh water from saline/ brackish water. produces pneumatophores (blind roots) to overcome respiration problem in the anaerobic soil conditions

  • Leaves are thick and contain salt secreting glands.
  • exhibit viviparity mode of reproduction. i.e. SeedS germinate in the tree itself (before falling to the ground). This is an adaptative medianiSintoovercome the problem of germination in Saline water.
  • crystals of salt on the back of the leaves; others block absorption of salt at their roots

The mangroves of Sundarbans are the largest single block of tidal holophytic mangroves of the world. famous for the Royal Bengal Tiger and crocodiles.

The mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa), which is the second largest in the Indian sub continent, harbour high concentration of typical mangrove species and high genetic diversity have (additional) special roots such as prop roots, pneumatophores  which help to impede water flow and thereby enhance the deposition of sediment in areas (where it is already occurring), stabilize the coastal shores, provide breeding ground for fishes. protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes:and floods release oxygen back to the atmosphere, along with a little methane gas

Landform

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Each landform has its unique physical shape, size, materials and is a result of the action of certain geomorphic processes and agent(s). Every landform has a beginning. Landforms once formed may change in their shape, size and nature slowly or fast due to continued action of geomorphic processes and agents. Due to changes in climatic conditions and vertical or horizontal movements of landmasses, either the intensity of processes or the processes themselves might change leading to new modifications in the landforms.

Evolution

It implies stages of transformation of either a part of the earth’s surface from one landform into another or transformation of individual landforms after they are once formed. That means, each and every landform has a history of development and changes through time. A landmass passes through stages of development somewhat comparable to the stages of life — youth, mature and old age.

Geomorphic Agents

Changes on the surface of the earth owe mostly to erosion by various geomorphic agents. Running water, ground-water, glaciers, wind and waves are powerful    erosional and depositional agents shaping and changing the surface of the earth aided by weathering and mass wasting processes. These geomorphic agents acting over long periods of time produce systematic changes leading to sequential development of landforms.

Fluvial landforms

The landforms created as a result of degradational action (erosion) or aggradation work (deposition) of running water is called fluvial landforms.

These landforms result from the action of surface flow/run-off or stream flow (water flowing through a channel under the influence of gravity). The creative work of fluvial processes may be divided into three physical phases—erosion, transportation and deposition.

The landforms created by a stream can be studied under erosional and depositional categories.

Erosional category

Valleys, gorge and Canyon

The extended depression on ground through which a stream flows throughout its course is called a river valley. A gorge is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides. A canyon is characterized by steep step-like side slopes and may be as deep as a gorge.

At a young stage, The profile of valley  is typically ‘V’ shaped. As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion becomes prominent and the valley floor flattens out. The valley profile now becomes typically ‘U’ shaped with a broad base and a concave slope.

Potholes, Plunge pools

Potholes are more or less circular depressions over the rocky beds of hills streams.Once a small and shallow depression forms, pebbles and boulders get collected in those depressions and get rotated by flowing water. Consequently, the depressions grow in dimensions to form potholes.Plunge pools are nothing but large, deep potholes commonly found at the foot of a waterfall. They are formed because of the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders.

Incised or Entrenched Meanders

They are very deep wide meanders (loop-like channels) found cut in hard rocks.In the course of time, they deepen and widen to form gorges or canyons in hard rock.The difference between a normal meander and an incised/entrenched meander is that the latter found on hard rocks.

River Terraces

They are surfaces marking old valley floor or flood plains.They are basically the result of vertical erosion by the stream. When the terraces are of the same elevation on either side of the river, they are called as paired terraces.When the terraces are seen only on one side with none on the other or one at quite a different elevation on the other side, they are called as unpaired terraces.

Depositional Features

Alluvial Fans

They are found in the middle course of a river at the foot of slope/ mountains.When the stream moves from the higher level break into foot slope plain of low gradient, it loses its energy needed to transport much of its load.Thus, they get dumped and spread as a broad low to the high cone-shaped deposits called an alluvial fan.

Deltas

They are found in the mouth of the river, which is the final location of depositional activity of a river. \The coarser material settle out first and the finer materials like silt and clay are carried out into the sea.

 

 Flood Plains, Natural Levees

Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, linear and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of a river.The levee deposits are coarser than the deposits spread by flood water away from the river.

 

 Meanders and oxbow lakes

  • They are formed basically because of three reasons: (i) propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradient to work laterally on the banks; (ii) unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the bank with many irregularities; (iii) Coriolis force acting on fluid water deflecting it like deflecting the wind.
  • The concave bank of a meander is known as cut-off bank and the convex bank is known as a slip-off
  • As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection point and are left as oxbow lakes.

Braided Channels

When selective deposition of coarser materials causes the formation of a central bar, it diverts the flow of river towards the banks, which increases lateral erosion. Similarly, when more and more such central bars are formed, braided channels are formed. Riverine Islands are the result of braided channels.

 

Karst Topography

Any limestone, dolomite or gypsum region showing typical landforms produced by the action of groundwater through the process of solution and deposition is called as Karst Topography (Karst region in the Balkans).

Sinkholes

A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shaped towards the bottom.When as sinkhole is formed solely through the process of solution, it is called as a solution sink.When several sink holes join together to form valley of sinks, they are called as blind valleys.

 

Caves

In the areas where there are alternative beds of rocks (non-soluble) with limestone or dolomite in between or in areas where limestone are dense, massive and occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent. Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharged Caves having an opening at both the ends are called tunnels.

Stalactites and stalagmites

They are formed when the calcium carbonates dissolved in groundwater get deposited once the water evaporates.These structures are commonly found in limestone caves.Stalactites are calcium carbonate deposits hanging as icicles while Stalagmites are calcium carbonate deposits which rise up from the floor.When a stalactite and stalagmite happened to join together, it gives rise to pillars or columns of different diameters.

GLACIERS

Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a vast sheet of ice is spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down the slopes of mountains in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called glaciers.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Cirque

Cirques are the most common of landforms in glaciated mountains. They are deep, long and wide troughs or basins with very steep concave to vertically dropping high walls at its head as well as sides. A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after the glacier disappears. Such lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes.

Horns and Serrated Ridges

Horns form through head ward erosion of the cirque walls. If three or more radiating glaciers cut headward until their cirques meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks called horns form.

 

Glacial Valleys/Troughs

Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth, and steep sides. There may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or formed by debris within the valleys. There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial valley. Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are called fjords/fiords.

 

Depositional landforms

 

Moraines

They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are long ridges of debris deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge. deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called ground moraines.

 

Eskers

When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down along the margins or even moves through holes in the ice. These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with ice forming its banks. Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with some minor fractions of rock debris carried into this stream settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge called esker.

Outwash Plains

The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and clay.

Drumlins

Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till with some masses of gravel and sand. The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement. They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height.

 

Arid Landforms

Wind is one of the  dominant agents in hot deserts. The wind action creates a number of interesting erosional and depositional features in the deserts.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Pediments and Pediplains

. Gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a thin cover of debris, are called pediments. through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the expense of mountain front, and gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s how the high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless plains called pediplains.

Playas

Plains are by far the most prominent landforms in the deserts. In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body. Such types of shallow lakes are called as playas where water is retained only for short duration due to evaporation and quite often the playas contain good deposition of salts.

. Deflation Hollows and Caves

Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent movement of wind currents in one direction. This process may create shallow depressions called deflation hollows. Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow depressions called blow outs are created, and some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.

Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks

Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are worn out quickly leaving some remnants of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above. Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a table top and quite often, the remnants stand out like pedestals.

Depositional Landforms

When the wind slows or begins to die down, depending upon sizes of grains and their critical velocities, the grains will begin to settle.

Sand Dunes

Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation are equally important. There can be a great variety of dune forms Crescent shaped dunes called barchans with the points or wings directed away from wind .Parabolic dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially covered with vegetation. That means parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with wind direction being the same.

Seif is similar to barchan with a small difference. Seif has only one wing or point. Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant. They appear as long ridges of considerable length but low in height. Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction. These dunes form when the wind direction is constant and the source of sand is an elongated feature at right angles to the wind direction.

Minerals in Meghalaya

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Minerals in Meghalaya

Meghalaya is endowed with sizeable deposits of a number of valuable minerals. Coal, limestone, uranium, granite, kaolin, clay and glass sand are the principal minerals. A brief account of mineral resources is as follows:

Limestone

An extensive bed of limestone occurs in the Southern part of the State from Jaintia Hills in the East and Garo Hills in the West. The main deposits are found around Cherrapunjee, Mawlong, Ichamati, Shella, Komorrah in the East Khasi Hills district; Borsora and Bagli in the West Khasi Hills district; Lakadong, Lumshnong and Nongkhlieh in the Jaintia Hills district; and Darrang Era-aning, Siju, Chokpot in the South Garo Hills district.

Coal

Most of the coal reserves in Meghalaya are tertiary reserves.Coal occurs in Mikir Hills, Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills and Garo Hills districts. The production of upgraded coal was reported by private non-captive mines in the unorganised sector located in these areas except Mikir Hills district. The mines are operated mostly by the local tribals in their private lands.

Uranium reserves in Meghalaya

Meghalaya is the third uranium rich state in the country after Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh. The state accounts for 16 per cent of Indias uranium reserves, with deposits estimated to be around 9,500 tones and 4,000 tones respectively at Domiasiat and Wakhyn, both in West Khasi hills region.Minerals in Meghalaya

Kyelleng-Pyndengsohiong, Mawthabah (KPM) uranium mining project is located in the West Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya state in the North East region of India. Formerly this project was also known as Domiasiat uranium mining project. The Atomic Mineral Directorate for Exploration and Research in 1972 found evidences of uranium deposits in the area which was confirmed by 1996 after intensive drilling between 1992 and 1996. Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL) proposes to mine it using open pit mining method up to a depth of 45 m. The processing plant will be constructed at Mawthabah. It is estimated that KPM deposit in Meghalaya will last for 25 years.

Clay

Clay of various types such as Kaolin (China clay), white clay, and fire clay are found in various parts of the states. These clay are suitable for the ceramic, paper, rubber and refractory industries. It has been estimated that there are a few hundred million tonnes of clay reserved in the state.

Granite reserves

Deposits of multi-coloured granite have been located around nongpoh in the Ri-Bhoi district, mylliem in the east khasi hills district; mawkyrwat and nongstoin in the west khasi hills distric.

Sand deposits

The sand deposits of the State are mainly concentrated in Khasi hills. The glass deposits of Laitryn grew coal field and around Shillong are found to be suitable for manufacturing of ordinary bottle glasrs, window glass etc. and with some chemical pu rification even for sheet glass and flint glass. Some of the sands are within the specifica tion o f foundry sands, which are now in great demand in the country. The estimated reserve of glass deposits is about 2.30 m illion tonnes as against Tripura – 0.18 m illion tones.

Feldspar and quartz occur near Tura in Garo hills and near Hahim in Khasi Hills. The estimated mining reserve of feldspar in the State (0.02 million tonnes) is at par with Assam (0.02 million tonne),2 3456 while the quartz is 2.03 m illion tonnes as compared to Tripura – 0.19 million tonnes.

Massive sillimanite associated with corrundum occurs in Khasi hills . More than 2i deposits have been located in the vicinity of Sonapahar, Nongpur and Nongbain villages and are worked by the Assam Sillimanite Ltd. Most of the deposits contain sillimanite with admixed corrundum to a little extent, one or two entirely of corrundum and several of sillimanite only.

 

 

28-29.01.18 Meghalaya(MeghalayaPSC) Current Affairs

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NORTH-EASTERN STATES

  • Northeast children dominate list of bravery award winners

 

  • Four children from Nagaland, two from Mizoram and one of each from Manipur and Meghalaya are among the 18 bravehearts honoured with the National Bravery Awards 2017.

 

  • Among the eight from the northeastern states, two — F. Lalchhandama from Mizoram and Km Loukrakpam Rajeshwari Chanu from Manipur — were honoured posthumously.

 

  • Of the eighteen children selected for National Bravery awards this year, seven are girls. Nazia from Uttar Pradesh was honoured with the Bharat Award for raising her voice against illegal gambling and betting which has become rampant in her neighbourhood.

 

  • Last year the National Bravery Awards was given to 25 children from different parts of the country. Five of the awardees were from the North-Eastern states. The children for National Bravery Award are selected by a committee comprising representatives of various Ministries, NGO’s and office bearers of Indian Council for Child Welfare ( ICCWF). The national Bravery Award was initiated by the ICCWF to give recognition to children for outstanding deeds of bravery.

 

 

INTERNATIONAL

 

·        India To Host Informal WTO Ministerial Gathering In New Delhi

 

  • Trade ministers from various countries including Australia, Japan, and Switzerland met for an informal WTO ministerial gathering in Davos, Switzerland.
  • India was represented by Deepak Jagdish Saksena, ambassador and permanent representative to the WTO.
  • India announced that it will host an informal WTO Ministerial gathering in March 2018.
  • The meeting would be held in New Delhi on March 19-20.

 

 

·        Worlds second largest food producer India ranks under Severe Hunger Levels

 

  • One of the highest food producers- India stands on the 100th rankfor the title ‘Hungry’.
  • Out of 119, India stood on 100th rank which is disturbing for the nation with the highest population.
  • ‘Global Hunger Index’ carried out by International Food Policy Research Institute chalked out nations that fall under ‘Starving’ category.
  • The 100 out of 119 countries on the GHI, while last year it was at 97 out of 118.
  • Even though India’s 2017 GHI score—31.4—has improved over the years, its hunger problem remains categorized as “serious.”
  • The rankings are based on four indicators: undernourishment, child mortality, child wasting, and child stunting.
  • A GHI score of between 20 and 34.9 points reflects serious hunger levels; between 35 and 49.9, it is alarming, and extremely alarming if over 50.

·        Doklam issue heated up

What is Doklam issue ?

 

  • Doklam, or Donglang in Chinese, is an area spread over less than a 100 sq km comprising a plateau and a valley at the trijunction between India, Bhutan and China. It is surrounded by the Chumbi Valley of Tibet, Bhutan’s Ha Valley and Sikkim.
  • Despite several rounds of engagement between China and Bhutan, the dispute between the two over Doklam has not been resolved. It flared up in 2017 when the Chinese were trying to construct a road in the area, and Indian troops, in aid of their Bhutanese counterparts, objected to it, resulting in the stand-off. Doklam is strategically located close to the Siliguri Corridor, which connects mainland India with its north-eastern region. The corridor, also called Chicken’s Neck, is a vulnerable point for India.
  • India and China have one of the world’s longest disputed borders and areas — which include 37,000 sq km of uninhabited Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh with 1.4 million residents and over 84,000 sq km.
  • Despite several rounds of negotiations between Special Representatives, the dispute is nowhere near a solution.

 

NATIONAL

 

·        2017 witnessed a 38% rise in social media URL blocking

 

  • A total of 1,329 social media URLs were blocked or removed on the recommendation of a government committee to deal with “objectionable content” last year till November 2017.
  • This is an increase of nearly 38% from 964 social media URLs blocked or removed for the whole of 2016.
  • URLs that were blocked or removed on account of court orders during the same period came down from 100 in 2016 to 83 in January-November 2017, according to an internal note of the Ministry of Electronics and IT
  • Also, the widespread usage of social networking sites and lack of awareness among users about the methods of cybercriminals, it added, is leading to a rise in the spread of malware such as Trojans and bots, and the theft of sensitive personal information.
  • Blocking is a sovereign power that is given to the government by virtue of Section 69A of the Information Technology Act. So under certain specified considerations, the power of blocking can be exercised… This power was inserted in the IT Act by virtue of the Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008, which came into effect from October 2009.

 

·        Sensors in Andamans to monitor earthquakes

  • The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS) of the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) is in the process of setting up an elaborate system of sensors on the Andaman & Nicobar Islands for real-time monitoring of earthquakes.
  • Strong Motion Sensors with Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have been installed at 28 locations on the islands.
  • INCOIS, which comes under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, has in place a fail-safe satellite-based communication system, Emergency Operation Centres (EOCs), with VSAT based VoIP phone and fax, electronic display board, a computer-based earthquake alert and web access system.
  • The system is capable of displaying ticket messages related to tsunami events and triggering of a built-in siren alert system audible for up to 1 km, which can be triggered by INCOIS or by the EOCs.
  • The real-time data is collated at INCOIS in collaboration with the Indian Meteorology Department, the National Institute of Ocean Technology, the Survey of India and international sources.
  • It detects globally occurring earthquakes of 5 magnitude and above within 5-10 minutes of the event.

 

·        Finance Minister Arun Jaitley aim to ease doing business in India

 

  • Union Finance Minister Arun Jaitley reiterated that the government aims to provide an easy environment for doing business in India.
  • He was addressing a function to mark the International Customs Day in New Delhi.
  • He urged the officers of the Central Board of Excise and Customs (CBEC) to be very sharp in the detection process to avoid tax evasion.
  • The role of customs in terms of detection changed a lot.
  • The appealed the officers to perform the role of trade facilitator to cut down costs, time and bring efficiency to the system.
  • He also launched ICETRAK app of CBEC.
  • The app tracks the status of consignments.

 

·        Bharat Net opens door for telemedicine and e-education facilities in Gram Panchayats

 

  • Under the purview of the telecommunication industry, the Gram Panchayats in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan are been provided access to telemedicine and re-education facilities riding on Bharat Net infrastructure.
  • With the aim of dreaming of a nation to use internet services, the government has taken immense efforts and pressure to provide people with easy access and availability of resources.
  • The rural area development has grown and the nation is moving towards progress at a faster pace.
  • The access to the internet has made the people more prone to the internet and use telecommunication at a higher level. Educating the masses and likewise providing them.
  • According to the survey it is found that Hamira is one among the one lakh Gram

panchayat covered under the BharatNet phase 1.

 

  • In total Rajasthan comprises of over8117 Gram panchayats under the BharatNet service.

India in the Eighteenth Century

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Bahadur Shah 1 (1707-12)

  • Muzam succeeded Aurungzeb after latter’s death in 1707
  • He acquired the title of Bahadur Shah.
  • Though he was quite old (65) and his rule quite short there are many significant achievements he made
  • He reversed the narrow minded and antagonistic policies of Aurungzeb
  • Made agreements with Rajput states
  • Granted sardeshmukhi to Marathas but  not Chauth
  • Released Shahuji (son of Sambhaji) from prison (who later fought with Tarabai)
  • Tried to make peace with Guru Gobind Sahib by giving him a high Mansab. After Guru’s death, Sikhs again revolted under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. This led to a prolonged war with the Sikhs.
  • Made peace with Chhatarsal, the Bundela chief and Churaman, the Jat chief.
  • State finances deteriorated

Jahandar Shah (1712-13)

  • Death of Bahadur Shah plunged the empire into a civil war
  • A noted feature of this time was the prominence of the nobles
  • Jahandar Shah, son of Bahadur Shah, ascended the throne in 1712 with help from Zulfikar Khan
  • Was a weak ruler devoted only to pleasures
  • Zulfikar Khan, his wazir, was virtually the head of the administration
  • ZK abolished jizyah
  • Peace with Rajputs: Jai Singh of Amber was made the Governor of Malwa. Ajit Singh of Marwar was made the Governor of Gujarat.
  • Chauth and Sardeshmukh granted to Marathas. However, Mughals were to collect it and then hand it over to the Marathas.
  • Continued the policy of suppression towards Banda Bahadur and Sikhs
  • Ijarah: (revenue farming) the government began to contract with revenue farmers and middlemen to pay the government a fixed amount of money while they were left free to collect whatever they could from the peasants
  • Jahandhar Shah defeated in January 1713 by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra

Farrukh Siyar (1713-19)

  • Owed his victory to Saiyid Brothers: Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and Abdullah Khan
  • Abdullah Khan: Wazir,                    Hussain Ali: Mir Bakshi
  • FS was an incapable ruler. Saiyid brothers were the real rulers.
  • Saiyid Brothers
    • Known the Indian History as King Makers
    •  adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Abolished jizyah (again?). Pilgrim tax was abolished from a number of places
    • Marathas: Granted Shahuji swarajya and the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan
    • They failed in their effort to contain rebellion because they were faced with constant political rivalry, quarrels and conspiracies at the court.
    • Nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk and Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire against them
    • In 1719, the Saiyid Brothers killed and overthrew FS.
    • This was followed by placing, in quick succession, of two young princes who died of consumption
    • Murder of the emperor created a wave of revulsion against the SB. They were looked down as ‘namak haram’
  • Now, they placed 18 year old Muhammad Shah as the emperor of India
  • In 1720, the nobles assassinated Hussain Ali Khan, the younger of the SB. Abdullah Khan was also defeated at Agra

Muhammad Shah ‘Rangeela’ (1719-1748)

  • Weak-minded, frivolous and over-fond of a life of ease
  • Neglected the affairs of the state
  • Intrigued against his own ministers
  • Naizam ul Mulk Qin Qulich Khan, the wazir, relinquished his office and founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724
    • “His departure was symbolic of the flight of loyalty and virtue from the Empire”
  • Heriditary nawabs arose in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh and Punjab
  • Marathas conquered Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand
  • 1738: Invasion of Nadir Shah

 

Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1738)

  • Attracted to India by its fabulous wealth. Continual campaigns had made Persia bankrupt
  • Also, the Mughal empire was weak.
  • Didn’t meet any resistance as the defense of the north-west frontier had been neglected for years
  • The two armies met at Karnal on 13th Feb 1739. Mughal army was summarily defeated. MS taken prisoner
  • Massacre in Delhi in response to the killing of some of his soldiers
  • Plunder of about 70 crore rupees. Carried away the Peacock throne and Koh-i-noor
  • MS ceded to him all the provinces of the Empire west of the river Indus
  • Significance: Nadir Shah’s invasion exposed the hidden weakness of the empire to the Maratha sardars and the foreign trading companies

Ahmed Shah Abdali

  • One of the generals of Nadir Shah
  • Repeatedly invaded and plundered India right down to Delhi and Mathura between 1748 and 1761. He invaded India five times.
  • 1761: Third battle of Panipat. Defeat of Marathas.
  • As a result of invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah, the Mughal empire ceased to be an all-India empire. By 1761 it was reduced merely to the Kingdom of Delhi

Shah Alam II (1759-

  • Ahmed Bahadur (1748-54) succeeded Muhammad Shah
  • Ahmed Bahadur was succeeded by Alamgir II (1754-59)
    • 1756: Abdali plundered Mathura
  • Alamgir II was succeeded by Shah Jahan III
  • Shah Jahan III succeeded by Shah Alam II in 1759
  • Shah Alam spent initial years wandering for he lived under the fear of his wazir
  • In 1764, he joined forces with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in declaring a war upon the British East India company. This resulted in the Battle of Buxar
  • Pensioned at Allahabad
  • Returned to Delhi in 1772 under the protection of Marathas

Decline of the Mughal Empire

  • After 1759, Mughal empire ceased to be a military power.
  • It continued from 1759 till 1857 only due to the powerful hold that the Mughal dynasty had on the minds of the people of India as a symbol of the political unity of the country
  • In 1803, the British occupied Delhi
  • From 1803 to 1857, the Mughal emperors merely served as a political front of the British.
  • The most important consequence of the fall of the Mughal empire was that it paved way for the British to conquer India as there was no other Indian power strong enough to unite and hold India.

Succession States

  • These states arose as a result of the assertion of autonomy by governors of Mughal provinces with the decay of the central power
  • Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad

Hyderabad and the Carnatic

  • Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724
  • Tolerant policy towards Hindus
    • A Hindu, Puran Chand, was his Dewan.
  • Established an orderly administration in Deccan on the basis of the jagirdari system on the Mughal pattern
  • He died in 1748
  • Nawab of Carnatic freed himself of the control of the Viceroy of the Deccan and made his office hereditary
    • Saadutullah Khan of Carnatic made his nephew Dost Ali his successor

Bengal

  • 1700: Murshid Quli Khan made the Dewan of Bengal
  • Freed himself of the central control
  • Freed Bengal of major uprisings
    • Three major uprisings during his time: Sitaram Ray, Udai Narayan and Ghulam Muhammad, and then by Shujat Khan, and finally by Najat Khan
  • Carried out fresh revenue settlement. Introduced the system of revenue-farming.
  • Revenue farming led to the increased distress of the farmers
  • Laid the foundations of the new landed aristocracy in Bengal
  • MQK died in 1727. Succeeded by Shuja-ud-din.
  • 1739: Alivardi Khan killed and deposed Shuja-ud-din’s son, Sarfaraz Khan, and made himself the Nawab
  • All three Nawabs encouraged merchants, both Indian and foreign.
  • Safety of roads and rivers. Thanas and Chowkies at regular intervals.
  • Maintained strict control over the foreign trading companies
  • They, however, did not firmly put down the increasing tendency of the English East India Company to use military force, or to threaten its use, to get its demands accepted.
  • They also neglected to build a strong army

Awadh

  • 1722: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk
  • Suppressed rebellions and disciplined the Zamindars
  • Fresh revenue settlement in 1723
  • Did not discriminate between Hindus and Muslims. The highest post in his government was held by a Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai
  • Died in 1739. Succeeded by Safdar Jung.
  • SJ’s reign was an era of peace
  •  made an alliance with the Maratha sardars
  • Carried out warfare against Rohelas and Bangash Pathans
  • Organized an equitable system of justice
  • Distinct culture of Lucknow developed during his period

Mysore

  • Haidar Ali, in 1761, overthrew Nanjaraj and established his own authority over Mysore
  • 1755: Established a modern arsenal at Dindigal with the help of French experts
  • Conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar
  • He conquered Malabar because he wanted access to the Indian Ocean
  • First and Second Anglo-Mysore War
  • 1782: Succeeded by Tipu Sultan
  • TS was an innovator. Introduced a new calendar, a new system of coinage and new scales of weights and measures.
  • Keen interest in French Revolution
    • Planted a ‘tree of liberty’ at Srirangapatnam and became a member of the Jacobin Club
  • Made efforts to build a modern navy
  • Mysore flourished economically under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan
  • Sent missions to France, Turkey, Iran and Pegu Myanmar to develop foreign trade
  • Some historians say that Tipu was a religious fanatic. But facts don’t support this assertion.

 

 

Kerala

  • Divided into large number of feudal chiefs in the 18th century
  • Four important states
    • Calicut (under Zamorin), Chirakkal, Cochin and Travancore
  • In 1729, Travancore rose to prominence under King Martanda Varma
  • Conquered Quilon and Elayadam, and defeated the Dutch
  • From 1766 Haidar Ali invaded Kerala and annexed northern Kerala up to Cochin
  • Revival of Malyalam literature
    • Trivandram became a famous centre of Sanskrit scholarship

Rajput States

  • Rajputana states continued to be divided as before
  • Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was the most outstanding ruler of the era
    • Founded the city of Jaipur
    • Made Jaipur a great seat of science and art
    • Astronomer. Erected observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and Mathura
    • Drew up a set of tables, entitled Zij Muhammadshahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations
    • Translated Euclid’s “Elements of Geometry” into Sanskrit
    • Social reformers. Reduce lavish marriage expenditures.

Jats

  • Jat peasants revolted in 1669 and 1688
  • Jat state of Bharatpur set up by Churaman and  Badan Singh
  • Reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763

Sikhs

  • Sikhsim transformed into a militant religion during Guru Hargobind (1606-45), the sixth guru.
  • Guru Gobind Singh waged constant war against the armies of Aurangzeb and the hill rajas
  • After Guru Gobind Singh’s death (1708), leadership passed to Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur)
    • He struggled with the Mughal army for 8 years
    • Put to death in 1715
  • Banda Bahadur failed because
    • Mughal centre was still strong
    • Upper classes and castes of Punjab joined forces against him
    • He could not integrate all the anti-Mughal forces because of his religious bigotry
  • After the withdrawal of Abdali from Punjab, Sikhs were again resurgent
  • Between 1765 and 1800 they brought the Punjab and Jammu under their control
  • They were organized into 12 misls
  • Ranjit Singh
    • Chief of the Sukerchakia Misl
    • Captured Lahore (1799) and Amritsar (1802)
    • Conquered Kashmir, Peshawar and Multan
    • Possessed the second best army in Asia
    • Tolerant and liberal
    • Fakir Azizuddin and Dewan Dina Nath were his important ministers
    • “known to step down from his throne to wipe the dust off the feet of Muslim mendicants with his long grey beard”
    • Negative point: He did not remove the threat of British. He only left it over to his successors. And so, after his death, when his kingdom was torn by intense internal struggle, English conquered it.

Marathas

  • Maratha Families
    • Peshwa – Pune
    • Gaekwad – Baroda
    • Bhosle – Nagpur
    • Holkar – Indore
    • Scindia – Gwalior
  • The most powerful of the succession states
  • Could not fill the political vacuum because
    • Maratha Sardars lacked unity
    • Lacked the outlook and programme which were necessary for founding an all-India empire
  • Shahuji
    • Son of Sambhaji
    • Imprisoned by Aurungzeb
    • Released in 1707
    • Civil war between Shahu and his aunt Tarabai who ruled in the name of her infant son Shivaji II
    • The conflict gave rise to a new era of Maratha leadership, the era of Peshwa leadership
  • Balaji Vishwnath
    • 1713: Peshwa of King Shahu
    • Induced Zulfikar Khan to grant the chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan
    • Helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farukh Siyar
    • Maratha sardars were becoming individually strong but collectively weak
    • Died in 1720. Succeeded by his son Baji Rao I
  • Baji Rao I
    • the greatest extent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji
    • Vast areas ceded by the Mughals
    • Marathas won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand
    • Rivalry with Nizam ul Mulk
    • Compelled the Nizam to grant chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan provinces
    • 1733: Campaign against Sidis of Janjira and the Portuguese (Salsette and Bassein)
    • Died in 1740
    • Captured territories but failed to lay the foundations of an empire
    • Succeeded by Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb)
  • Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)
    • Shahu died in 1749. Peshwas became the de facto rulers
    • Shifted the capital to Poona
    • Captured Orissa
    • Mysore forced to pay tributes
    • In 1752, helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the wazir
    • Brought Punjab under their control and expelled the agent of Ahmad Shah Abdali
      • This led AS Abdali to come to India to settle accounts with Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat
    • Third Battle of Panipat
      • ASA formed an alliance with Najib-ud-daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-daulah of Awadh.

Saranjami system:- Social and economic condition

 

Vegetation of Meghalaya

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Vegetation of Meghalaya

  • The floral diversity of Meghalaya is well reputed for its richness and has been a centre of attraction for many botanists.
  • The presence of a large number of primitive flowering plants has prompted Takhtajan (1969) to call it the Cradle of Flowering Plants’.
  • Meghalaya harbours about 3,128 species of flowering plants and contributes about 18% of the total flora of the country, including 1,237 endemic species.
  • A wide variety of wild cultivable plants, edible fruits, leafy vegetables and orchids are found in the natural forests of Meghalaya.
  • However due to overexploitation, deforestation and habitat destruction many endemic and threatened species are now mainly confined to the protected areas and sacred groves.
  • The region is a habitat for many botanical curiosities and botanical rarities.
  • Among insectivorous plants Nepenthes khasiana Hk. f. and two species of Drosera i.e, Drosera peltata Sm. and D. burmanii Vahl. are important.
  • Nepenthes khasiana is endemic to Meghalaya and listed in Appendix I of CITES and placed in Schedule VI of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
  • The Khasi and Jaintia hills are considered to be the centre of diversity for several primitive families such as Elaeocarpaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Anonaceae, Ranunculaceae, Piperraceae, Menispermaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Lauraceae, Myricaceae, Lazarbiaceae and primitive genera like Sarcandra, Corylopis, Myrica, Magnolia and Michelia.

 Types of Vegetation of Meghalaya 

According to Champion & Seth (1968), major forest types of Vegetation of Meghalaya  are:-

  1. Assam Sub-tropical Hill Savanna
  2. Khasi Sub-tropical Hill Forests
  3. Assam Sub-tropical Pine Forests
  4. Assam Sub-tropical Pine Savannah

Haridasan & Rao (1985-87) recognized the following major categories of Vegetation of Meghalaya  based on altitude, rainfall and dominant species composition:

  1. Tropical Evergreen Forests
  2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
  3. Tropical Moist and Dry Deciduous Forests
  4. Grasslands and Savannas
  5. Temperate Forests
  6. Sub-tropical Pine Forests

Tropical Evergreen Forests:

 

  • This forest type spreads over the lower reaches of Khasi, Jaintia and Garo hills up to 1200m and usually occurs in high rainfall areas as well as near catchment areas.
  • The dominant tree species include Castanopsis indica,  Tribuloides,Dysoxylum sp, Elaeocarpus sp, Engelhardtia spicata, Syzygium spp., Tetrameles nudifloraetc. which are densely interwoven by lianas. The ground flora of under shrubs and herbs include Dracaena elliptica, Leea edgeworthia, Phlogacanthus sp., and other species belonging to the family Acanthaceae, Rubiaceae, Balsaminaceae and Asteraceae.
  • The tree trunk and branches are covered with epiphytes belonging to Ferns, Orchids, Gesneriads, Piper, mosses and many others.
  • Lianas and climbers like Rhaphidophora spp. are also abundant.

 

Tropical Semi Evergreen Forests: 

  • This forest type occupy the north and north-eastern slopes of the state up to an elevation of 1200m and with an annual rainfall of 1500-2000mm.
  • However there are deciduous elements along with evergreen types. Careya arborea, Dillenia pentagyna, Callicarpa arborea, Tetrameles spp, etc are some of the deciduous species.
  • Other dominant species are Elaeocarpus floribundus, Dillenia indica, Symplocos paniculata, Sapindus rarak
  • The ground flora is also much seasonal with greater representation from the Zingiberaceae family.

 

Tropical Moist and Dry Deciduous Forest: 

  • This is a very prominent Vegetation of Meghalaya  covering a large part of East and West Garo Hills, Ri-bhoi districts etc, in areas of annual rainfall less than 1500mm and high temperature.
  • These forests are characterised by seasonal leaf shedding and profuse flowering. The dominant tree species which are valued economically are Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Terminalia myriocarpa, Gmelina arborea, Artocarpus chapsala, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Maorus laevigata
  • Other associated species are Schima wallichii, Toona ciliata, Albizzia lebbeck, Dillenia pentagyna, etc.
  • The epiphytic floras in less but orchids, ferns, Asclepidaiceae members are often seen.
  • Bamboo forests are not natural but occur in patches sporadically in jhum fallows. The common bamboo species are Dendrocalamus hamiltoniiand Melocanna
  • Some other species less frequently found are Bambusa pallida, Bambusa tulda, Chimonobambusa khasiana, etc.

 

Grasslands and Savannahs: 

  • Grasslands in Vegetation of Meghalaya are secondary in nature and are prevalent in higher altitudes and are a result of removal of pristine forests, the relics of which could be seen amidst these grasslands as sacred groves.
  • The dominant grass genera in the grasslands are Panicum, Paspalum, Imperata, Axonopus, Neyraudia, Sporobolus, Saccharum, Chrysopogon, Oplisminusand others along with sedges.

 

 

 

Temperate Forests: 

  • The temperate forests occupy the higher elevations (>1000m) with very high rainfalls (2000-5000 mm) along the Southern slopes of Khasi and Jaintia Hills.
  • The sacred groves largely fall under this category and are the relic type evolved through millions of years.
  • The common trees are Lithocarpus fenestratus, Castanopsis kurzii, Quercus griffithii, Q. semiserrata, Schima khasiana, Myrica esculenta, Symplocos glomerata, Photinia arguta, Ficus nemoralis, Manglietia caveana, Acer spp., Exbucklandia populnea, Engelhardtia spicata, Betula alnoides, Rhododendron arboretum, etc. Shrubs include Mahonia pycnophylla, Daphne papyraceae, Polygala arillata, Camellia caduca, Rubus spp.,
  • These forest are exceptionally rich in epiphytic flora comprising Ferns, Lichens, Mosses, Orchids, Zingibers, etc.

 

Subtropical Pine forests: 

  • The pine forests are confined to the higher reaches (900m – 1500 m) of the Shillong plateau in Khasi and Jaintia Hills.
  • Pinus kesiyais the principal species which form pure stands. In certain places the pines are associated with a few broad leaved species like Schima wallichii, Myrica esculenta, Erythrina arborescence, Rhus javanica, Rhododendron arboretum, Quercus spp., etc.
  • Shrubs include Rubus, Osbeckia, Spireaand Artemesia.
  • During rainy season there is a profuse herbaceous undergrowth of Chrysanthemum, Aster, Hypochaeris, Prunella, Plectranthus, Desmodium, Ranunculus, Anemone, Potentilla, Clinopodium, Polygonum, Elsholtzia, etc

 

Important Tree Species of Meghalaya

Rare, Endangered and Threatened Plant Species

  • A recent review of literature carried out Meghalaya Biodiversity Board reveals that a total of 436 Rare, Endangered and Threatened plant species have been recorded from Meghalaya representing 13.09% of the state’s flora.
  • Gastrochilus calceolaris, Gymnocladus assamicus, Illichium griffithii, Pterocybium tinctorium, Saurauia punduana, Taxus baccata and Vatica lanceafolia are few of the Critically Endangered plant species of Vegetation of Meghalaya .

Extinct Plant Species

  • Carex repanda, Cyclea debiliflora, Dendrobenthamia capitata, Hedychium hookeri, Homiorchis rhodorrhachis, Michelia lanuginose, Morinda villosa, Nymphaea pygmaea, Pleione lagenaria, Premna punduana, Schleichera trijuga, Sterculia khasiana and Talauma rabaniana are considered to have gone extinct in Vegetation of Meghalaya .

Endemic Plant Species:

  • They are species with restricted range of distribution.
  • A recent review of literature carried out by Meghalaya Biodiversity Board reveals a total of 281 Endemic plant species have been recorded from Meghalaya representing 8.44% of the state’s flora.
  • Of these, around 102 are listed under various Threat Categories and two in the Extinct Category. Ilex khasiana and Nepenthes khasiana are the Endemic and Critically Endangered species.
  • Some of the Endemic and Endangered species found in Meghalaya are Adinandra griffithii, Ceropegia arnottiana, Clematis apiculata, Elaeagnus conferta ssp. dendroidea, Eriocaulon barba-caprae, Goniothalamus simonsii, Ilex venulosa, Livistona jenkinsiana, Ophiorrhiza subcapitata and Trivalvaria kanjilalii.

Orchids:

  • Meghalaya is endowed with a rich and luxuriant orchid flora of nearly 352 species belonging to 98 genera representing 27.08% of the country’s orchid flora.
  • For several centuries, orchids have been known for their attractive flowers and their medicinal properties.
  • The majority of the orchids are epiphytes, however, lithophytes, terrestrials and saprophytes are also encountered.
  • They are found to inhabit ranges from Sub-tropical evergreen to moist mixed deciduous types of forests.
  • Aerides multiflorum, Coelogyne corymbosa, Cymbidium elegans, Dendrobium devonianum, Dendrobium longicornu, Paphiopedilum insigne, Rhynchostylis retusa, Phaius tankervilliae, Thunia marshalliana and Vanda coerulea are few of the exotic orchids of Meghalaya.

Bamboo and Canes:

  • The state harbours more than 37 species of Bamboos belonging to 14 genera.
  • Some of the important genera are Arundinaria, Bambusa, Cephalostachyum, Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, Melocanna, Neohouzeoua, Oxytenanthera, Vegetation of Meghalaya Phyllostachys, Pseudostachyum, Schizostachyum, Teinostachyum and Thamnocalamus. Arundinaria hirsuta, A. manii, Bambusa jaintiana, B. mastersii, B. pseudopallida, Cephalostachyum pallidum, Chimonobambusa callosa, Chimonobambusa griffithiana, Chimonobambusa khasiana, Chimonobambusa polystachya, Dendrocalamus sikkimensis, Phyllostachys manii, Schizostachyum dulloa, Schizostachyum griffithi, Schizostachyum helferi, S. manii, S. pallidum, Schizostachyum polymorphum and Thamnocalamus prainii are endemic.
  • Cane (Calamus sp) is a woody climber and several species are known to occur in Meghalaya.
  • It is usually found to inhabit warm and moist climate at lower elevations.
  • Calamus erectus and C. floribundus are the endemic canes occurring in the state.
  • Cane and Bamboo craft is a very important handicraft sector in Meghalaya.

Medicinal Plants:

  • Of the total 3,331 plant species recorded in the state around 834 (25.04%) are estimated to be employed in healthcare.
  • These species are distributed in 548 genera and 166 families.
  • The family with the highest number of medicinal plant species is Rubiaceae followed by Asteraceae and Fabaceae.
  • These species are restricted mainly to sacred groves, community forests and reserved forests and some to grasslands, roadsides, cults and fields, etc.
  • Due to high level of exploitation and faulty harvesting techniques, many of the endemic species such as Acanthus leucostachys, Calamus erectus, C. aurantium, C. latipes, Curcuma montana, Daphniphyllum himalense, Eleaegnus conferta ssp. dendroidea, Goniothalamus simonsii, Hedera nepalensis, Hymenodictyon excelsum, Ilex embeloides, Mahonia pycnophylla, Munronia pinnata, Nepenthes khasiana, Ochna squarrosa, Ophiorrhiza sub-capitata, Paramignya micrantha, Piper peepuloides, Schima khasiana and Sophora accuminata have been rendered rare.

 

08.02.18 Meghalaya(MeghalayaPSC) Current Affairs

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NORTH-EASTERN STATES

 

  • Prime Minister Narendra Modi to address elections rallies at Sonamura & Kailasahar in Tripura

 

  • Prime Minister Narendra Modi will address rallies at Sonamurain Sipahijala districtand Kailasahar in Unakoti district.
  • Assam Chief Minister and BJP leader Sarbanand Sonowal addressed public meetings in Teliamura and Majlishpur yesterday.
  • Assam’s former Chief Minister and Congress leader Tarun Gogoi campaigned in Badarghat constituency.
  • Tripura Chief Minister Manik Sarkar addressed rallies in Kumar ghat and Kailasahar of Unakoti district. The state will go to polls on the 18th of this month to elect a new assembly.
  • Prime Minister Narendra Modi will be addressing rallies in Sonamura of Sipahijala and Kailasahar of Kailasahar districts. In view of PM’s rally, the security arrangement has been beefed up in the state.
  • Also, yesterday addressing a rally in Teliamura, Assam’s Chief Minister Sarbanand Sonowal Prime Minister Narendra Modi wants to develop each and every state of the country.

 

 

INTERNATIONAL

 

·        Forbes Releases Its First-Ever Cryptocurrency Rich List

 

  • Business magazine Forbes released its first-ever Crypto Rich List, comprising 20 wealthiest peoplein the cryptocurrency space.
  • The list was topped by Ripple Co-founder Chris Larsen, who is estimated to have a crypto net worth of $7.5-8 billion.
  • He is followed by Ethereum Co-founder Joseph Lubin ($1-5 billion) and Founder of cryptocurrency exchange Binance Changpeng Zhao ($1.1-2 billion).

 

·        Bermuda Becomes first Country In World To Abolish Same-Sex Marriage

 

  • Bermuda becomes the first country to legalize and then repeal same-sex marriage.
  • Bermuda’s governor John Rankin approved a bill reversing the right of gay couples to marry, despite a supreme court ruling last year authorizing same-sex marriage.

 

 

NATIONAL

 

·        Google and NCERT Join Hands To Teach Students Digital Safety

 

  • Google and National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)signed a pact to integrate a course on ‘Digital Citizenship and Safety’ in information and communication technology curriculum.
  • It was signed on the occasion of Safer Internet Day (06th February).
  • The curriculum developed by NCERT in collaboration with Google will be used to train students from class I – class XII across 1.4 million schools in India where they will learn how to become good and responsible digital citizens. The curriculum is spread into four themes – being smart, being safe, being a digital citizen and being future ready.

 

·        HAL Develops First Hawk-I Flight

 

  • The Hindustan Aeronautics Limited developed the first flight of Hawk-i with indigenous Real Time Operating System (RTOS).
  • Hawk-i is the first indigenous RTOS developed in India from scratch and certified by Center for Military Airworthiness and Certification (CEMILAC). 
  • The RTOSis the system software which provides a standard run-time environment for real-time applications execution in a safe and reliable manner.

 

·        Fifth South Asia Region Public Procurement Conference Held In New Delhi

 

  • The Fifth edition of South Asia Region Public Procurement Conferencewas held in New Delhi.
  • It was hosted by Public Procurement Division (PPD) of Ministry of Finance and All India Management Association (AIMA).
  • It was held under auspices of South Asia Region Public Procurement Network (SARPPN),which is sponsored and facilitated by the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and Islamic Development Bank.
  • The theme this edition of the conference was “Public Procurement and Service Delivery”.

 

 

·        Union Cabinet approves implementation of PMRF scheme gives nod to enhance beneficiaries under Ujjwala Yojana from 5 to 8 crores

 

 

  • Union Cabinet approved implementation of Prime Minister’s Research Fellows (PMRF) schemeat a total cost of 1,650 crore rupees for a period of seven years beginning 2018-19. The scheme was announced in the Union Budget for 2018-19.
  • Under this scheme, the best students who have completed or are in the final year of B. Tech or Integrated M.Tech or M.Sc. in Science and Technology streams from IISc or IITs or NITs or IISERs or IIITs will be offered direct admission in the Ph.D. programme in the IITs or IISc.
  • Such students, who fulfill the eligibility criteria, and are shortlisted through a selection process, as laid down in the PMRF Guidelines, will be offered a fellowship of 70 thousand rupees per month for the first two years, 75 thousand rupees per month for the 3rd year and 80 thousand rupees per month in the 4th and 5th years.

 

·        Defence Ministry constitutes a 13-member advisory committee to expedite capital acquisition for Armed Forces modernisation

 

  • Defence Minister Nirmala Sitharamanconstituted a 13-member advisory committee to monitor and expedite capital acquisition projects for the modernization of the armed forces.
  • In a statement, the Ministry said, the committee will undertake an independent review and check the status of ongoing critical projects worth more than 500 crore rupees.
  • The panel will suggest measures to improve the capital acquisition process.
  • The committee, headed by Vinay Sheel Oberoi, will have to present an initial status report on identified projects to the Defence Minister by March 31.

 

  • Centre to link driving licence with Aadhaar

 

  • The Centre is in the process of linking driving licences with Aadhaar number to weed out fake licences and a software for this covering all states on a real time basis is under preparation, the Supreme Court was told.

 

  • A bench comprising Justices Madan B Lokur and Deepak Gupta was informed about it by a court-appointed committee on road safety headed by former Supreme Court judge Justice K S Radhakrishnan.

 

  • This assumes significance as a five-judge Constitution bench headed by Chief Justice Dipak Misra is currently hearing a clutch of petitions challenging the constitutional validity of the Aadhaar scheme and the enabling 2016 law.

 

  • ISRO sets up 473 Village Resource Centres for rural development

 

  • To demonstrate the potential of satellite technology for development of rural areas, ISRO established Village Resource Centres (VRCs) on a pilot scale, in association with selected NGOs, Trusts and State Government Departments.

 

  • VRCs have provided various space technology enabled services such as tele-healthcare, tele-education, natural resources information, advisories related to agriculture, career guidance to rural students, skill development and vocational training etc.

 

  • About Rs 18 crores was spent for establishing 473 VRCs.

 

·        Development of Solar Cities scheme: 60 Solar Cities to be developed

  • Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)under its “Development of Solar Cities” scheme sanctioned the development of 60 Solar Cities including 13 Pilot and 5 Model Cities up to 12th Five-year Plan period (2012–2017).
  • So far, master plans of 49 Solar Cities have been prepared.
  • Under it, local Governments are motivated for adopting renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency measures.
  • Solar City developed under this scheme will have all types of renewable energy based projects like solar, wind, biomass, small hydro, waste to energy.

·        Nuclear-Capable Prithvi-II Missile Successfully Test-Fired

  • India successfully test-fired its indigenously developed nuclear capable Prithvi-II missile as part of a user trial by the Army from Integrated Test Range at Chandipur, in Odisha. It is a surface-to-surface missile and has a strike range of 350 km.
  • Prithvi-II is capable of carrying 500-1,000 kilogram of warheads and is thrust by liquid propulsion twin engines.
  • Inducted into the Armed forces of the country in 2003, the nine-meter-tall, single-stage liquid-fuelled Prithvi-II is the first missile to have been developed by the DRDO under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).

 

  • Jhulan Goswami first female cricketer to take 200 ODI wickets

 

  • India’s veteran pacer Jhulan Goswami has added another feather to her illustrious cap by becoming the first female cricketer to take 200 ODI wickets.

  • Goswami achieved the feat during the second ODI between India and South Africa.

 

  • The 35-year-old, playing her 166th ODI, dismissed opener Laura Wolvaardt for her 200th scalp.

 

  • She was adjudged ICC Women Cricketer of the Year in 2007.

 

Role and Functions of Reserve Bank of India

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Role of RBI

Pre-reform Post-reform
Developmental Role: the developmental role has increased in view of the changing structure of the economy with a focus on SMEs and financial inclusion Priority Sector Lending: Introduced from 1974 with public sector banks. Extended to all commercial banks by 1992 In the revised guidelines for PSL the thrust is on ensuring adequate flow of bank credit to those sectors that impact large segments of the population and weaker sections, and to the sectors which are employment intensive such as agriculture and small enterprises
Lead Bank Scheme Special Agricultural Credit Plan introduced.
Kisan Credit Card scheme (1998-99)
Focus on credit flow to micro, small and  medium enterprises development
Financial Inclusion
Monetary Policy: the role of RBI has changed from regulating credit and money flow directly to using market mechanisms for achieving policy targets. MP framework has changed to promote financial deregulations and market development. Role as a facilitator rather than as principal actor. M3 as an intermediary target Multiple Indicator Approach
Regulation of foreign exchange Management of foreign exchange
Direct credit control Open Market Operations, MSS, LAF
Rupee convertability highly managed Full current ac convertability and some capital account convertability
Banker to the government Monetary policy was linked to the fiscal policy due to automatic monetisation of the deficit Delinking of monetary policy from the fiscal policy. From 2006, under FRBM, RBI ceased to participate in the primary market auctions of the central government’s securities.
As regulator of financial sector: As regulator of the financial sector, RBI has faced the challenge of regulating the increasing financial sector in India. Credit flows have increased. RBI had to make sure that financial institutions are regulated in a way to protect the consumers while not impeding economic growth. Reduction in SLR
Custodian of FOREX reserves Forex reserves have increased drastically. Need to manage it adequately and avoid inflationary impact
Inflation Direct instruments were used Multiple indicators
Financial Stability Closed economy Increased FDI and FII has made financial stability one of the policy objectives.
Money Market Narsimhan Committee (1998) recommended reforms in the money market

 

 

Features, Amendments and Significant provisions of Indian Constitution

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Amendments

Amendments to the Constitution are made by the Parliament, the procedure for which is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament by a two-thirds majority and voting. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. As of June 2013 there have been 118 amendment bills presented in the Parliament, out of which 98 have been passed to become Amendment Acts.

Amendments of constitution
Amendment Enforced on Objectives
1. 1951 To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws and to place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule 9 introduced to protect laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights. These laws encroach upon property rights, freedom of speech and equality before law.
2. 1953 A technical amendment to fix the size of each parliamentary constituency between 650,000 and 850,000 voters.
3. 1955 LS limit of 500 members, one member of a constituency represents between 500000 and 750000 people.
4. 1955 Restrictions on property rights and inclusion of related bills in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
5. 1955 Provides for a consultation mechanism with concerned states in matters relating to the amendments to the territorial matters and in the re-naming of the state.
6. 1956 Amend the Union and State Lists with respect to raising of taxes.
7. 1956 Reorganization of states on linguistic lines, abolition of Class A, B, C, D states and introduction of Union Territories.
8. 1960 Clarify state’s power of compulsory acquisition and requisitioning of private property and include Zamindari abolition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
9. 1960 Minor adjustments to territory of Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.
10. 1961 Incorporation of Dadra, Nagar and Haveli as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
11. 1961 Election of Vice President by Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, instead of election by a Joint Sitting of Parliament.
Indemnify the President and Vice President Election procedure from challenge on grounds of existence of any vacancies in the electoral college.
12. 1961 Incorporation of Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
13. 1963 Formation of State of Nagaland, with special protection under Article 371A.
14. 1962 Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India and creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa.
15. 1963 Raise retirement age of judges from 60 to 62 and other minor amendments for rationalizing interpretation of rules regarding judges etc.,
16. 1963 Make it obligatory for seekers of public office to swear their allegiance to the Indian Republic and prescribe the various obligatory templates.
17. 1964 To secure the constitutional validity of acquisition of Estates and place land acquisition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution
18. 1966 Technical Amendment to include Union Territories in Article 3 and hence permit reorganisation of Union Territories.
19. 1966 Abolish Election Tribunals and enable trial of election petitions by regular High Courts.
20. 1966 Indemnify & validate judgments, decrees, orders and sentences passed by judges and to validate the appointment, posting, promotion and transfer of judges barring a few who were not eligible for appointment under article 233. Amendment needed to overcome the effect of judgement invalidating appointments of certain judges in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
21. 1967 Include Sindhi as an Official Language.
22. 1969  

Provision to form Autonomous states within the State of Assam.
23. 1970 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1980.
24. 1971 Enable parliament to dilute fundamental rights through amendments to the constitution.
25. 1972 Restrict property rights and compensation in case the state takes over private property.
26. 1971 Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.
27. 1972 Reorganization of Mizoram into a Union Territory with a legislature and council of ministers.
28. 1972 Rationalize Civil Service rules to make it uniform across those appointed prior to Independence and post independence.
29. 1972 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
30. 1973 Change the basis for appeals in Supreme Court of India in case of Civil Suits from value criteria to one involving substantial question of law.
31. 1973 Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats. Increased seats going to the new states formed in North East India and minor adjustment consequent to 1971 Delimitation exercise.
32. 1974 Protection of regional rights in Telengana and Andhra regions of State of Andhra Pradesh.
33. 1974 Prescribes procedure for resignation by members of parliament and state legislatures and the procedure for verification and acceptance of resignation by house speaker.
34. 1974 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
35. 1975 Terms and Conditions for the Incorporation of Sikkim into the Union of India.
36. 1975 Formation of Sikkim as a State within the Indian Union.
37. 1975 Formation of Arunachal Pradesh legislative assembly.
38. 1975 Enhances the powers of President and Governors to pass ordinances
39. 1975 Amendment designed to negate the judgement of Allahabad High Court invalidating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s election to parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of President, vice-president and Prime Minister.
40. 1976 Enable Parliament to make laws with respect to Exclusive Economic Zone and vest the mineral wealth with Union of India

Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
41. 1976 Raise Retirement Age Limit of Chairmen and Members of Union and State Public Commissions from 60 to 62.
42. 1977 Amendment passed during internal emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a “Socialist Secular” Republic.
43. 1978 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Repeals some of the more ‘Anti-Freedom’ amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42.
44. 1979 Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.
45. 1980 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1990.
46. 1983 Amendment to negate judicial pronouncements on scope and applicability on Sales Tax.
47. 1984 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
48. 1985 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to two years in the state of Punjab.
49. 1984 Recognize Tripura as a Tribal State and enable the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council.
50. 1984 Technical Amendment to curtailment of Fundamental Rights as per Part III as prescribed in Article 33 to cover Security Personnel protecting property and communication infrastructure.
51. 1986 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
52. 1985 Anti Defection Law – Provide disqualification of members from parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other.
53. 1987 Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
54. 1986 Increase the salary of Chief Justice of India & other Judges and to provide for determining future increases without the need for constitutional amendment.
55. 1987 Special powers to Governor consequent to formation of state of Arunachal Pradesh.
56. 1987 Transition provision to enable formation of state of Goa.
57. 1987 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.
58. 1987 Provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of constitution as on date and provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of future amendments.
59. 1988 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years in the state of Punjab, Articles 352 and Article 359A amended to permit imposing emergency in state of Punjab or in specific districts of the state of Punjab.
60. 1988 Profession Tax increased from a maximum of Rs. 250/- to a maximum of Rs. 2500/-.
61. 1989 Reduce age for voting rights from 21 to 18.
62. 1989 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2000.
63. 1990 Emergency powers applicable to State of Punjab, accorded in Article 359A as per amendment 59 repealed.
64. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.
65. 1990 National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its stututory powers specifed in The Constitution.
66. 1990 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
67. 1990 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to four years in the state of Punjab.
68. 1991 Article 356 amended to permit President’s rule up to five years in the state of Punjab.
69. 1992 To provide for a legislative assembly and council of ministers for Federal National Capital of Delhi. Delhi continues to be a Union Territory.
70. 1991 Include National Capital of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry in electoral college for Presidential Election.
71. 1992 Include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali as Official Languages.
72. 1992 Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Tripura State Legislative Assembly.
73. 1993 Statutory provisions for Panchyat Raj as third level of administration in villages.
74. 1993 Statutory provisions for Local Administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities. (Municipalities)
75. 1994 Provisions for setting up Rent Control Tribunals.
76. 1994 Enable continuance of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by including the relevant Tamil Nadu Act under 9th Schedule of the constitution.
77. 1995 A technical amendment to protect reservation to SC/ST Employees in promotions.
78. 1995 Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
79. 2000 Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2010.
80. 2000 Implement Tenth Finance Commission recommendation to simplify the tax structures by pooling and sharing all taxes between states and The Centre.
81. 2000 Protect SC / ST reservation in filling backlog of vacancies.
82. 2000 Permit relaxation of qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for SC / ST candidates.
83. 2000 Exempt Arunachal Pradesh from reservation for Scheduled Castes in Panchayati Raj institutions.
84. 2002 Extend the usage of 1991 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
85. 2002 A technical amendment to protect seniority in case of promotions of SC/ST Employees.
86. 2002 Provides Right to Education until the age of fourteen and Early childhood care until the age of six.
87. 2003 Extend the usage of 2001 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
88. 2004 To extend statutory cover for levy and utilization of Service Tax.
89. 2003 The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was bifurcated into The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
90. 2003 Reservation in Assam Assembly relating to Bodoland Territory Area.
91. 2004 Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15 % of legislative members & to strengthen Anti Defection laws.
92. 2004 Enable Levy of Service Tax. Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Maithili as National Languages.
93. 2006 Reservation for OBCs in government as well as private educational institutions
94. 2006 To provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States.
95. 2010 Extended the reservation of seats in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for SCs and STs from sixty to seventy years.
96. 2011 Changed “Oriya” in the Eighth Schedule to “Odia.
97. 2012, Jan 12 Right to form unions or co-operative societies. (19(1)C)

Promotion of Co-operative Societies. (43B)

The Co-operative Societies. (Part 9B)
98. 2013, Jan 2 To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region.

(To insert Article 371J in the Constitution)

 

Structure

 

Parts of Constitution
Part Articles Deals with
1 1-4 The Union and its territory
2 5-11 Citizenship
3 12-35 Fundamental Rights
4 36-51 Directive Principles of State Policy
4A 51A Fundamental Duties
5 52-151 The Union
6 152-237 The States
7 238 Repealed
8 239-242 The Union Territories
9 243A-O The Panchayats
9A 243P-ZG The Municipalities
10 244-A The Scheduled and Tribal areas
11 245-263 The relation between Union and States
12 264-300A Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits
13 301-307 Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the territory of India
14 308-323 Services under The Union and The States
14A 323A-B Tribunals
15 324-329A Elections
16 330-342 Special provisions relating to SCs, STs, OBCs and Anglo-Indians
17 342-351 Official Language
18 352-360 Emergency Provisions
19 361-367 Miscellaneous
20 368 Amendment of the Constitution
21 369-392 Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions
22 393-395 Short title, Commencement, Authoritative text in hindi and repeals

 

Schedules of Constitution
Schedule Articles Deals with
1 1,4 The States and The Union Territories. (28 states, 7 union territories)
2 59,65,75,97,125,148,158,164,186,221 Emoluments, allowances and Privileges.

 
3 75,84,99,124,146,173,188,219 Oaths of ministers and judges.

Office of union ministers, secrecy of union ministers, candidate for MP elections, elected MP, Judges of SC or CAG, candidate for state legislatures, elected state ministers, Judges of HC.
4 4,80 Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha. (currently 233 elected + 12 nominated)
5 244 Administration and control of Scheduled areas and scheduled tribes.
6 244,275 Administration of Tribal areas of North-Eastern states: Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura.
7 246 Distribution of Power : Union list(99), State list(61) and Concurrent list(52).

Union list:
8 344,351 Languages.

Originally 14, currently 22.

Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Marathi,

Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu.

21st amendment: Sindhi. (1967)

71st amendment: Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali. (1992)

92nd amendment: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali. (2004)
9 31B Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.

Introduced by 1st amendment (1951) to protect from judicial review.

Laws made after April 24, 1973 are open for judicial review now.

284 laws includes state laws on land reforms.
10 102,191 Anti-Defection Law (52nd amendment)
11 243G Powers and Responsibilities of Panchayats (73rd amendment)
12 243W Powers and Responsibilities of Municipalities (74th amendment)

 

Features

  • Lengthiest written Constitution: Originally our constitution contained 395 articles divided in 22 parts and 8 schedules. Constitution has been amended 98 times. Currently there are 25 Parts, 12 Schedules, and 448 Articles. These figures show our constitution as the most comprehensive constitution in the world. (British have no written constitution and Constitution of USA had originally only 7 articles)
  • Starts with a Preamble: It gives an insight into the Philosophy of the Constitution.
  • Drawn from different sources: fundamental rights from USA, bicameralism from UK, Fundamental duties from USSR etc,
  • Blend of Rigidity and Flexibility: making Law is quite flexible and easy in comparison to amending a law.
  • Sovereignty of the Country: managing internal and external affairs freely without any external forces.
  • Democratic state: governing power is derived from the people by means of elected representatives of the people.
  • Republic: India does not have a hereditary post of Head of the State. The Head of the state in India is President and he / she is elected.
  • Socialist State: Indian socialism is democratic socialism. The goals of the socialism are to be realized through democratic means.
  • Secular state: India is secular country. Here No religion is a state religion. The constitution provides equal treatment to all religions.
  • Parliamentary Form of Government: Westminster model of government. Presence of nominal and real executives, majority party rule, collective responsibility of executive to legislature, dissolution of lower house, prime minister has crucial and important role.
  • A blend of Federal and Unitary System: there are separate governments in the Union and States and there is division of power. Unitary features: Strong centre. Single Citizenship, single constitution for both the centre and states, emergency provisions, all India services. India is also quasi-federal as constitution describes India as union of states. States cannot unjoin as well as there is no agreement by states. We have union as well as state lists.
  • Integrated and independent Judiciary: The states have high courts but the verdicts of these courts are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court. The Constitution has made the High Courts subordinate to the Supreme Court.
  • Universal Adult Franchise: Every citizen who is above 18 years has a Voting Right without any discrimination.
  • Three tier government structure: union, state and panchayats.
  • Synthesis of parliamentary sovereignty and judicial supremacy: judicial review of Supreme Court by procedure established by law. Also, parliament can amend major portion of constitution.
  • Fundamental rights: to promote political democracy. Enforceable by courts for violation. They are Justiciable in nature.
  • Fundamental duties: to respect constitution; to promote national unity, integrity, sovereignty; to preserve rich cultural heritage and promote common brotherhood. They are not justiciable in nature.
  • Directive principles of state policy: socialistic, liberal and gandhian meant for promoting ideal social and economic democracy. To establish welfare state. It is the duty of state to apply these in governance. They are not justiciable.
  • Independent bodies: constitution not only provides legislative, executive and judicial organs of government (state and centre) but also has independent election commission, CAG, UPSC, SPSC with security of tenure, service conditions.

 

Provisions

Emergency Provisions in the Constitution of India

The Emergency Provisions are mentioned from Article 352 to Article 360.

?      Article 352: Proclamation of Emergency – due to external intrusion or war the President of India can declare a state of emergency through a Proclamation. This Article suggests that such a Proclamation can be revoked or a varied Proclamation can also be issued. However, the decision of the Cabinet ministers to issue such a proclamation must be sent to the President in written form prior to his issuance of the same. According to the Article, all such Proclamations should be presented to both the Houses of the Parliament. The Proclamations, if not accepted by a resolution, will be counted as ineffective after one month. If the Proclamation is not accepted after the passing of a second resolution, then it will become ineffective after the expiry of 6 months of the second resolution. It is also mentioned in the Article that not less than two-thirds of the members of any of the Parliamentary Houses should be required to pass a resolution. There are certain rules specified in this Article regarding the President revoking or issuing a varied Proclamation during Emergency.

?      Article 353: Effect of Proclamation of Emergency – this Article states that the Proclamation of Emergency includes extending the executive power of the union to the states in the form of directions. The Parliament, as per this Article, can confer the power to make laws, upon the officers or authorities of the Union.

?      Article 354: Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation – provisions made under Articles 268 to 279 can be modified or exceptions can be made by the President of India by an Order while the Proclamation period of emergency is going on. Information about all such Orders must be conveyed to both the Houses of Parliament.

?      Article 355: Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance – this Article states the fact that the Union or Center is solely responsible for defending the various states from all types of violence and aggressions erupting from outside and disturbances occurring within the nation’s territory.

?      Article 356: Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States – the President of India can take charge of a state if the reports submitted to him by the Governor suggest that the government of the state has become incapable of exercising the Constitutional powers. The President is also subjected to exercise the powers of the government of such state by Proclamation. The Proclamation issued under such circumstances become ineffective after 6 months from the date of issuance, if not revoked during this time period. All such Proclamations have to be presented to both the Houses of Indian Parliament and will expire after two months. The Legislative powers of such state shall also be exercised by the Parliament. In the Houses of Parliament there are certain rules and regulations regarding the expiry of the Proclamation and the time period normally depends upon the fact whether it has been revoked earlier or not.

?      Article 357: Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356 – the powers of the Legislature shall be exercised by the Parliament during emergency. The Parliament has the right to delegate Legislative powers to the President of India or any such authority. The President of India, after the Proclamation of Article 356, can make laws and shall have access to the consolidated fund during the time period when the House of the People is not in operation.

?      Article 358: Suspension of provisions of article 19 during emergencies – any provision under Article 19 will not be effective during emergency and the states can make law and undertake executive action. However, only those laws and executive actions containing recital related to emergency during the Proclamation of Emergency are effective as per the Article.

?      Article 359: Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies – the President of India can suspend all ongoing proceedings in any court of the nation during emergencies by an Order. The President can also call upon all pending court proceedings in case of emergencies. All such orders declaring the suspension of court proceedings have to be submitted to both the Houses of Parliament.

?      Article 360: Provisions as to financial emergency – a declaration shall be made by the President of India through a Proclamation regarding the financial crisis of the nation if such situation arises. Such a Proclamation can be revoked and has to be presented in both the Houses of the Parliament. The Proclamation thus issued will become null and void after two months if the same is not approved through a resolution passed by the Houses of Parliament. In case the Houses are not in session the Article suggests certain specific guidelines regarding the Proclamation. This Article also includes provisions relating to the salary and allowance reduction of those who are employed with Union and state departments. A provision relating to money bills and other financial bills passed by the state Legislature is mentioned in the Article. This provision states that all such bills have to be considered by the President during financial instability.

 

Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes

The Constitution of India has listed the special provisions relating to certain classes in Part XVI. From Article 330 to Article 342.

?      Article 330: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People – this Article states that a certain number of seats should be reserved in the House of the People for both the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. However, clause b of the Article includes Schedule Tribes excluding those who live in the autonomous districts of Assam. Clause c of the Article includes the Schedule Tribes belonging to the autonomous Assam districts. It is also mentioned in this Article that the total number of such seats assigned to the Schedule Tribes of autonomous Assam districts should match the total number of seats allotted in the House of the People. The seats alloted to the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes of a particular state or Union Territory should be proportional to the total number of seats reserved for such state or Union Territory in the house of the People.

?      Article 331: Representation of the Anglo-Indian Community in the House of the People – it is specified in this Article of the Indian Constitution that the President of India has the sole right to elect a maximum of 2 members belonging to the Anglo-Indian section to represent the entire community.

?      Article 332: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States – This Article of the Constitution states that a definite number of seats in every state’s Legislative Assembly should be alloted to the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. The Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes of the autonomous districts of Assam are also given seats in the Legislative Assembly. It is also specified that a person not belonging to the Schedule Tribes category of Assam state cannot contest the Legislation Assembly election from any of the constituencies of the districts of the state. Also, all areas outside the periphery of the districts of Assam should not hold any constituency of the Legislative Assembly of the Assam state. The total seats alloted to the state Legislative Assembly of Assam should be in proportion of the total population and the share of the SC/ST in such population.

 

As per Article332, the number of seats alloted to the SC/STs of a state should follow a proportion to the total number of seats assigned in the Assembly as the total population of the SC/STs in that state with respect to the total state population.

In case of such states as Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh, as per the Constitution Act 1987, if all the seats of the Legislative Assembly after the first census of 2000, belong to the Schedule Tribes, then only one seat shall be alloted to other communities. Also, the total number of seats alloted to the Schedule Tribes shall not be less than the existing number of seats in the Assembly of the state.

The Article suggests that the the total number of seats of Schedule Tribes in the Legislative Assembly of Tripura state should be proportional to the total number of existing seats in the Assembly. As per the Constitution Act 1992, the number of the Schedule Tribe members in the Legislative Assembly of Tripura shall not be less than the total number of seats already available in the Assembly.

 

?      Article 333: Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States – according to this Article of the Constitution of India if the Governor of any state thinks it necessary to elect one representative of the Anglo-Indian community for the Legislative Assembly of that state then he can do the same. Also, if the governor feels that Anglo-Indian community does not have sufficient representation in the state Legislative Assembly then also he can elect one member of that community for the Assembly.

?      Article 334: Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after 289A – This Article holds the fact that after 60 years of the enactment of the Indian Constitution, certain provisions shall become ineffective. However, it is also specified that the Article will not be applied until and unless the House of the People or the Legislative Assembly gets dissolved because of some significant reason. The Provisions with which this Article deals with include reserving seats for Anglo-Indian community, Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes in the House of the People or in the Legislative Assembly.

?      Article 335: Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts – The Article states that the various claims of the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes shall be regarded accordingly. Relaxation of age, lower cut off marks and easier parameters of evaluation for the purpose of selecting SC/ST candidates to different posts and services will remain intact irrespective of the provisions mentioned in this Article.

?      Article 336: Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services – as per this Article, for such posts of Union as postal and telegraph, customs and railway, the members of the Anglo-Indian community will be selected, for the first two years of the initiation of the Constitution, following the rules prevailing before 15th August, 1947. It is also specified that in every two years the total number of seats allotted to the Anglo-Indian community in different services and posts will go down by 10%. The Article states that these provisions will become ineffective after 10 years of the enactment of the Indian Constitution. However, clause 2 of this Article clearly mentions that if a candidate of the concerned community is eligible for any post other than the ones mentioned above then he will be selected with immediate effect.

?      Article 337: Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian community – the provisions of this Article deal with the fact that grants to the Anglo-Indian community shall be offered in the first three years of the enactment of the Constitution following the same rules made on 31st March 1948. It is also stated that the amount of such grants will reduce by 10% in every three succeeding years. It is mentioned that after 10 years of the initiation of the Constitution of India all such grants will cease to exist. Moreover, the Article states that only when at least 40% of the admissions in educational units belong to communities other than Anglo-Indians, such grants will be offered to the said community.

?      Article 338: National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes – This Article covers the issues to be dealt with by the said Commission exclusively made for the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. As per the Constitution of India, the Article holds that the Commission should include a Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and other members all of whom are elected by the President of India. The Commission, according to the Article, has the power to investigate all matters that are related to the safeguard of the Sc/STs. The commission can also exercise its power by summoning any person from any part of the nation to interrogate him regarding a particular issue of the SC/STs. The Commission shall also take necessary measures to improve the socio-economic status of the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. A report specifying whether the safeguards of the ST/SCs are maintained properly shall be submitted to the President of India every year by the Commission.

?      Article 339: Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes – the Article suggests that a Commission specifying the administration of Scheduled Areas and Welfare of Scheduled Tribes shall be formed by Order of the President after 10 years of the Indian Constitution’s enactment. The various procedures and powers of the commission are to be included in the said Order. Planning and execution of various schemes pertaining to the development of the Schedule Tribes included in the executive power of the Union is also mentioned in the Article.

?      Article 340: Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes – this Article specifies that the President of India can form a Commission by Order that will look into the overall condition of the people belonging to the backward classes. This Commission is also supposed to recommend any state or union the necessary steps through which the underprivileged classes can improve their social and economic status. On the basis of the investigation done, the Commission shall submit a report to the President of India. The President, in turn, shall present such report with a memorandum to both of the Houses of the Indian Parliament and will prescribe the necessary steps to be taken to develop the condition of the backward classes.

?      Article 341: Scheduled Castes – this Article states that the President of India after taking the advice of the Governor of any state or Union Territory, has the right to demarcate tribes, races or castes or a part of any group as Scheduled Castes, in accordance with the law of the Constitution. The president can do the same by issuing a public notification. However, the Parliament of India can, by law, accept or reject the list containing the Scheduled Caste groups.

?      Article 342: Scheduled Tribe – a group belonging to a tribe or an entire tribal community of a state or an Union Territory can be declared as Scheduled Tribe by the President of India through issuing a public notice. The President consults with the Governor of the concerned state or Union Territory before specifying a tribe as Scheduled Tribe. The Parliament of India can decide upon canceling or keeping the particular ST in the list of Scheduled Tribes. However, the public notification issued for declaration of the Scheduled Tribe can be saved by the Parliament.

 

Other provisions

 

Article 369 {Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List}

Article 370 {Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir}

Article 371 {Special provision with respect to the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat}

Article 371A {Special provision with respect to the State of Nagaland}

Article 371B {Special provision with respect to the State of Assam}

Article 371C {Special provision with respect to the State of Manipur}

Article 371D {Special provisions with respect to the State of Andhra Pradesh}

Article 371E {Establishment of Central University in Andhra Pradesh}

Article 371F {Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim}

Article 371G {Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram}

Article 371H {Special provision with respect to the State of Arunachal Pradesh}

Article 371I {Special provision with respect to the State of Goa}

Article 372 {Continuance in force of existing laws and their adaptation}

Article 372A {Power of the President to adapt laws}

Article 373 {Power of President to make order in respect of persons under preventive detention in certain cases}

Article 374 {Provisions as to Judges of the Federal Court and proceedings pending in the Federal Court or before His Majesty in Council}

Article 375 {Courts, authorities and officers to continue to function subject to the provisions of the Constitution}

Article 376 {Provisions as to Judges of High Courts}

Article 377 {Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India}

Article 378 {Provisions as to Public Commissions}

Article 378A {Special provisions as to duration of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly}

 

 

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