PSC Notes

Interior of earth,

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Most of the knowledge we have about Earth’s deep interior comes from the fact that seismic waves penetrate the Earth and are recorded on the other side.  Earthquake ray paths and arrival times are more complex than illustrated in the animations, because velocity in the Earth does not simply increase with depth. Velocities generally increase downward, according to Snell’s Law, bending rays away from the vertical between layers on their downward journey; velocity generally decreases upward in layers, so that rays bend toward the vertical as they travel out of the Earth . Snell’s Law also dictates that rays bend abruptly inward at the mantle/outercore boundary (sharp velocity decrease in the liquid) and outward at the outer core/inner core boundary (sharp velocity increase).

Major Points to remember about P S and Love waves

  • P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to ‘arrive’ at a seismic station.
  • The P wave can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth.
  • P waves are also known as compressional waves.
  • S waveor secondary wave, which is the second wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid medium.
  • Travelling only through the crust, surface wavesare of a lower frequency than body waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result.

 

Earth’s Layers – Earth’s Composition

The Crust of Earth

It is the outermost and the thinnest layer of the earth’s surface, about 8 to 40 km thick. The crust varies greatly in thickness and composition – as small as 5 km thick in some places beneath the oceans, while under some mountain ranges it extends up to 70 km in depth.

The crust is made up of two layers­ an upper lighter layer called the Sial (Silicate + Aluminium) and a lower density layer called Sima (Silicate + Magnesium).The average density of this layer is 3 gm/cc.

The Mantle of Earth

This layer extends up to a depth of 2900 km.

Mantle is made up of 2 parts: Upper Mantle or Asthenosphere (up to about 500 km) and Lower Mantle. Asthenosphere is in a semi­molten plastic state, and it is thought that this enables the lithosphere to move about it. Within the asthenosphere, the velocity of seismic waves is considerably reduced (Called ‘Low Velocity

The line of separation between the mantle and the crust is known as Mohoviricic Discontinuity.

 

The Core of Earth

Beyond a depth of 2900 km lies the core of the earth.The outer core is 2100 km thick and is in molten form due to excessive heat out there. Inner core is 1370 km thick and is in plasticform due to the combined factors of excessive heat and pressure. It is made up of iron and nickel (Nife) and is responsible for earth’s magnetism. This layer has the maximum specific gravity.The temperatures in the earth’s core lie between 2200°c and 2750°c. The line of separation between the mantle and the core is called Gutenberg­Wiechert Discontinuity.

 

 

 

 

vardhan empire

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Harsh Vardhan

Emperor Harshavardhana, better known as Harsha, lived from 590 to 647 CE and was the third ruler of the Vardhana Empire, the last great empire in ancient India before the Islamic Invasion. He ruled from 606 CE to 647 CE. After Harshavardhana’s death, however, the Vardhana dynasty came to an end and its empire dissolved.

India, the land beyond the Indus river, has seen many rulers who dreamt of conquering the vast country and rule from the Himalayas in the north to Deccan in south, from the mountains of Kandhar in the west to Assam in the east, yet very few have been able to subdue history according to their will. Harshavardhana was one such ruler. His empire may not be as large as the great Mauryan’s, yet he deserves special mention. After the fall of great Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century CE, under whom India saw its own golden age, it was Harshavardhana who unified most of northern India and ruled for four decades from his capital Kannauj.

RISE TO POWER & MILITARY CAMPAIGNS

The Vardhana dynasty was started by Prabhakarana Vardhana who ruled the kingdom of Thaneshwar, modern-day Haryana. Prabhakarana’s queen Yasovati gave birth to two sons Rajyavardhana and Harshawardhana and a daughter named Rajyashri who was later married to king Grahvarmana of Kanyakubja, modern-day Kannauj. This was a period of tension as India had to frequently deal with the invasion of the Huns of Central Asia. Once, emperor Skandagupta of the Gupta Empire laid a crushing defeat on these barbaric tribes, yet these constant fights were so costly that they weakened the empire to the core, and this eventually led to the downfall of the Gupta Empire. As the western frontiers of India and areas adjoining the Indus river were under the occupation of Huns, skirmishes between Huns and Thaneshwar were regular. While Harsha and his brother were busy dealing with the Huns in the west, king Prabhakarana died in Thaneshwar. He was succeeded by his elder son, Rajyavardhana.

AFTER HIS BROTHER’S DEATH, AT THE AGE OF 16, HARSHAVARDHANA BECAME THE UNDISPUTED RULER OF THANESHWAR AND DECLARED WAR ON SASAKA TO AVENGE HIS BROTHER AND EMBARKED UPON A CAMPAIGN OF DIGVIJAY, I.E. TO CONQUER THE WORLD.

Meanwhile, in the east far greater events were happening which altered the course of history. Sasaka, king of Gauda, modern-day Bengal, marched and killed king Grahvarmana, Rajyashri’s husband, and then kidnapped her. The kidnapping of his sister forced the elder Vardhana brother to march east and confront Sasaka. Sasaka then invited Rajyavardhana for a meeting and treacherously killed him. After his brother’s death, at the age of 16, Harshavardhana became the undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar and declared war on Sasaka to avenge his brother and embarked upon a campaign of Digvijay, i.e. to conquer the world (which in this context means conquering whole India). Yet, his foremost enemy was now Sasaka who had to face an angry brother’s wrath. Harsha issued a proclamation to all kings known to either declare allegiance to him or face him on the battlefield. As Sasaka’s enemies responded to Harsha’s call, he marched on to Kannuaj.

Although there is no evidence, a story in Harshacharitra claims that Rajyashri, when released from prison, took refuge in the forest of Vindhyas. Hearing this, Harsha hurriedly went into the forest to save her and found her just when she was about to commit suicide by throwing herself in a fire. Rescuing his sister, he rejoined his army at the bank of Ganges. After this, Harsha easily conquered Kannauj as Sasaka went back to Bengal, and thus began a long enmity. It was only after Sasaka’s death that Harsha was able to control entire eastern India including Magadha, Bengal and Kalinga.

Harsha’s Digvijay, or the conquest of the world had now begun. After Kannauj, he turned his attention towards Gujarat. He defeated the local Valabhi kingdom and expanded his empire. Yet, this rapid expansion led to tensions between him and the Chalukya king Pulakesin II. It was now that the most powerful kingdoms of northern and southern India came face-to-face on the battlefield on the banks of river Narmada. In the end, the southerners under the able leadership of Pulakesin II prevailed leaving the ambitious northern ruler, Harsha, defeated. They say Harsha lost his cheer when he saw his elephants dying in the battle.

Harsha entered a peace treaty with the Chalukya king, which established Narmada river as the southern boundary of his empire and after that he never advanced south again. Yet, this did not halt his conquest of the north. He took the title of sakal uttara patha natha (lord of northern India). Hieun Tsang tells us that:

He waged incessant warfare, until in six years he had fought thr five Indians(referring to  five largest kingdoms). Then, having enlarges his territory, he increased his army, bringing the elephant corps upto 60,000 and the cavalry upto 100,000, and reigned in peace for thirty years without raising a weapon (Majumdar, 252).

Yet many historians believe his claim may be exaggerated. Still, this gives a glimpse of his military prowess.

The Vardhana Empire consisted of two distinctive types of territories: areas directly under Harsha’s rule such as Central Provinces, Gujarat, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, and the states and kingdoms which had become feudatories under him including Jalandhar, Kashmir, Nepal, Sind, Kamarupa (modern-day Assam). Thus, many historians do not find the title justified as he was never able to bring the entire north under a single command. Yet, this does not mean his power was not felt beyond the limits of his direct rule. His writ ran across entire north India. Under his command, King of Jalandhar escorted the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang to the frontiers of India. Another time, king of Kashmir had to submit a tooth relic of Buddha to Harsha. The Chinese source suggests that the King of Kamarupa could not dare to detain a Chinese pilgrim in his capital against the wishes of Harsha.

ART & EDUCATION

Harsha was a patron of both art and education. He himself was an author and wrote three Sanskrit plays, Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika. One-fourth of his revenue went for patronizing scholars. Hiuen Tsang gives a quite vivid description of the famous Nalanda University which was at its zenith during Harsha’s reign. He described how the regularly laid-out towers, forests of pavilions, temples seemed to “soar above the mists in the sky” so that from their cells the monks “might witness the birth of the winds and clouds”.
The pilgrim states:

An azure pool winds around the monasteries, adorned with the full-blown cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and there, and outside groves of mango trees offer the inhabitants their dense and protective shade (Grousset,158,159).

In its heyday, Nalanda had around 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers. The admission process was very strict. Records say there was a rigorous oral examination conducted by gatekeepers, and many used to be rejected. The curriculum included Vedas, Buddhism, philosophy, logic, urban planning, medicine, law, astronomy, etc.

SOCIETY & RELIGION

Caste system was prevalent among Hindus. They were divided into four castes or varna: Brahmana, Vaishya,Kshariya and Shudra, which among them had their own subcastes. The untouchables, who came at the lowest in the hierarchy, led a miserable life. The status of women declined as compared to the liberal era of earlier times. Satipratha (widow immolation) was common, and widow remarriage was not allowed in higher castes.

Harsha was a worshiper of Shiva in the beginning but later became a Mahayana Buddhist. Yet, he was tolerant of other faiths. With a view to popularize and propagate the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism, Harsha arranged at Kannauj a great assembly which was presided over by Hiuen Tsang. Hiuen Tsang took a lot of manuscripts to China and translated more than 600 of them from Sanskrit. Another great ceremony was held for 75 days at Prayag (Allahabad). The images of Buddha, Sun and Siva were worshiped, and gifts of valuable articles and clothing were distributed in charity. Every five years religious ceremonies were celebrated at the ancient city of Allahabad. Here, he held the ceremony of Dana, or giving, which lasted for three months. During this, most of the wealth accumulated in the last five years was exhausted. Once, he even gave his clothes and jewellery and begged his sister for an ordinary garment to wear.

DEATH & LEGACY

Harsha’s empire marked the beginning of feudalism in India. Land was granted in villages, which made the local landlords powerful. This led to the weakening of the empire and gave rise to local feuds. Harsha had to be in constant movement to keep things in order.

Harsha died in 647 AD, and the empire with him. The death of Harshavardhana is not well documented. It is said that he was married to Durgavati and had two sons named Vagyavardhana and Kalyanvardhana. The story goes that they were killed by a minister in his court, even before the death of Harsha himself. Therefore, Harsha died without any heir. As a result, Arjuna, one of the chief ministers took up the thrones. Later in 648 CE, Arjuna was captured and held prisoner in an attack by the Tibetians.

TAX REFORMS IN INDIA

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Tax Reforms in India

Sience 1990 ie the liberalization of Indian economy saw the beginning of Taxation reforms in the nation. The taxation system in the nation has been subjected to consistent and comprehensive reform. Following factors arise the need for tax reforms in India:-

  • Tax resources must be maximized for increased social sector investment in the economy.
  • International competitiveness must be imparted to Indian economy in the globalized world.
  • Transaction costs are high which must be reduced.
  • Investment flow should be maximized.
  • Equity should be improved
  • The high cost nature of Indian economy should be changed.
  • Compliance should be increased.

Direct & Indirect Tax Reforms

Direct tax reforms undertaken by the government are as follows:-

  • Reduction and rationalization of tax rates, India now has three rates of income tax with the highest being at 30%.
  • Simplification of process, through e-filling and simplifying the tax return forms.
  • Strengthening of administration to check the leakage and increasing the tax base.
  • Widening of tax base to include more tax payers in the tax net.
  • Withdrawal of tax exceptions gradually.
  • Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) was introduced for the ‘Zero Tax’ companies.
  • The direct tax code of 2010 replace the outdated tax code of 1961.

Indirect tax reforms undertaken by the government are as follows:-

  • Reduction in the peak tariff rates.
  • reduction in the number of slabs
  • Progressive change from specific duty to ad valor-em tax.
  • VAT is introduced.
  • GST has been planned to be introduced.
  • Negative list of services since 2012.

Indus Valley Civilization

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Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in south Asia, which spread across a vast area of land in present day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq.km). The time period of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years. But early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before BC.2700.

 

Features of Indus Valley Civilization

  • 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years.
  • On the valleys of river Indus.
  • Also known as Harappan Civilization.
  • Beginning of city life.
  • Harappan Sites discovered by – Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomori district, Punjab, Pakistan.
  • Mohenjo-Daro discovered by – R. D. Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.
  • City was divided into Citadel (west) and Lower Town(east).
  • Red pottery painted with designs in black.
  • Stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, long stone blades etc.
  • Copper, bronze, silver, gold present.
  • Artificially produced – Faience.
  • Specialists for handicrafts.
  • Import of raw materials.
  • Plough was used.
  • Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but during the later stages ‘H symmetry culture’ evolved where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
  • Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron not used.

 

 

Indus Valley Sites and Specialties

Harappa

  • Seals out of stones
  • Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi

Mohenjodaro

  • Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly hall
  • Term means ” Mount of the dead”
  • On the bank of river Indus
  • Believed to have been destructed by flood or invasion (Destruction was not gradual).

Chanhudaro

  • Bank of Indus River. – discovered by Gopal Majumdar and Mackey (1931)
  • Pre-harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and Jhukar Culture
  • Only cite without citadel.

Kalibangan

  • At Rajastan on the banks of river Ghaggar, discovered by A.Ghosh (1953)
  • Fire Altars
  • Bones of camel
  • Evidence of furrows
  • Horse remains ( even though Indus valley people didn’t use horses).
  • Known as third capital of Indus Empire.

Lothal

  • At Gujarat near Bhogava river, discovered by S.R. Rao (1957)
  • Fire Altars
  • Beside the tributary of Sabarmati
  • Store house
  • Dockyard and earliest port
  • double burial
  • Rice husk
  • House had front entrance (exception).

Ropar

  • Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej. Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)
  • Dog buried with humans.

 

Banawali

  • Haryana
  • On banks of lost river Saraswathi
  • Barley Cultivation.

 

Dholavira

  • Biggest site in India, until the discovery of Rakhigarhi.
  • Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. Discovered by J.P Joshi/Rabindra Singh (1990)
  • 3 parts + large open area for ceremonies
  • Large letters of the Harappan script (sign boards).

Religion of Indus Valley People

  • Pashupathi Mahadev (Proto Siva)
  • Mother goddess
  • Nature/ Animal worship
  • Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire
  • Amulets
  • Idol worship was practiced ( not a feature of Aryans)
  • Did not construct temples.
  • Similarity to Hindu religious practices. (Hinduism in its present form originated later)
  • No Caste system.

Indus Valley Society and Culture

  • Systematic method of weights and measures ( 16 and its multiples).
  • Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – Deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan
  • Equal status to men and women
  • Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian society
  • Textiles – Spinning and weaving
  • 3 types – burial, cremation and post cremation were there, though burial was common.
  • Majority of people Proto-australoids and Mediterraneans (Dravidians), though Mongoloids, Nordics etc were present in the city culture.

 

Artifacts for Posterity

The most numerous of the surviving artifacts are a series of steatite (soapstone) seals, of which the best known are those of the Humped Brahmani Bull and Pashupati. Apart from this, there are some carved figurines – the bronze Dancing Girl and the statues of a priest and a male torso, again in steatite.

Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley Civilization

Though there are various theories, the exact reason is still unknown. As per a recent study by IIT Kharagpur and Archaeological Survey of India, a weaker monsoon might have been the cause of decline of Indus Valley Civilization. Environmental changes, coupled with loss of power of rulers (central administration) of Indus valley to sustain the city life might be the cause (Fariservis Theory). There might be resource shortage to sustain the population, and then people moved towards south India. Another theory by Dr Gwen Robbins Schug states that inter-personal violence, infectious diseases and climate change had played a major role in the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization

Social Reformers & Their Work

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Rajaram Mohun   Laid stress on the study of English & established the Hindu College in Calcutta
Roy   alongwith David Hare.
Maharishi   The grandfather of Rabindranath Tagore. He inspired a number of thinkers like
Devendranath   Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar & Akshay Kumar Datta who became Brahmo Samaj
Tagore   members.  He  din’t  perform  his  fathers  antyeshti  samskara  as  it  involved  idol
    worship.
Keshav Chandra   He was greatly inspired with the lives of John the Baptist, Jesus Christ & hence he

 

Sen came in confrontation with Devendranath Tagore. Consequently the Brahmo Samaj
  was split into the Brahmo Samaj of India under him & Adi Brahmo Samaj under
  Devendranath. He opposed child marriage but married her own minor daughter to
  Maharaja of Cooch-Behar. Hence there was a further split into Neo Brahmo Samaj
  under him & Sadharan Brahmo Samaj
Ishwar Chandra Became principal of Sanskrit college in Calcutta. Opened the Sanskrit college for
Vidyasagar non  Brahmin  students.  He  founded  ‘Bethune  School  at  Calcutta’  to  encourage
  female education.
Bankim Chandra First graduate of Calcutta University which was estd in 1857 based on the lines of
  Macaulay Minute. He became a deputy collector. Wrote the famous Bande Matram
  (Anand Math) & published Banga Darshan magazine.
Ramakrishna Became a priest in the temple of Goddess Kali at Dakshineshwar.
Paramhamsa (1836-86)
Swami In 1893 he attened the Parliament of Religions at Chicago. In 1897 he established
Vivekanand the  Ramakrishna  Mission.  His  disciple,  Sister  Nivedita  even  helped  many
(1863-1902) revolutionaries from Bengal directly.
Swami Dayananda Known in early life as Mul Shankar & born in Gujarat. Received his education at
1824-83 the feet of Swami Virajananda at Mathura. Founded Arya Samaj in 1875 based on
  a set of 28 principles (later 10). He estd the HQ of Arya Samaj at Lahore. Passed
  away on Diwali at Jodhpur following the mixing of glass powder in his drink.
  Through his Satyartha Prakasha he emphasized Vedas. He laid emphasis on the
  worship  of  a  formless  god  &  abandonment  of  idolatory.  He  emphasized  on
  Ashrama system of education. He stressed on swadeshi, swadharma, swabhasha &
  swarajya. He considered Vedas as infallible.
Jyotibha Phule In  1873  he  founded  Satya  Shodhak  Samaj.  Gave  testimony  before  Hunter
  Commission against Christian missionaries. Later given the title ‘Mahatma’.
Sayyid Ahmad In 1875 founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh which later
Khan became Aligarh University. Opposed polygamy, purdah, abolition of the practice of
  easy divorce, reform in madrasa.
  Freedom Fighters
Lokmanya Tilak Introduced the celebration of Ganesh Chaturthi & Shivaji festivals. Paticipated in
1856-1920 Home Rule Movement in 1916. Called by Britishers as ‘Biggest Traitor’ & ‘Father
  of Indian dissatisfaction’
Lala Lajpat Rai Sher-e-Punjab. Was sent to Jail at Mandey on the charges of seditious activities.
Sri Aurobindo His development of National education & editing of Bande Mataram (started by
Ghosh Bipin Chandra Pal) gave momentum to Bengal partition movement. Left Baroda to
  work in the National College in Calcutta.
Chapekar Brothers Chapekar Brothers – Damodar & Balakrishna. Killed two British officials Rand &
  Aryst. Celcbrated Shivaji & Ganesh Utsavs.
Savarkar Brothers Ganesh  Savarkar,  Vinayak  Damodar  Savarkar  &  Narayana  Savarkar.  V.D.
  Savarkar organized the New India Association in London. Organizing lectures at
  the  India  House  founded  by  Shyamji  Krishna  Verma.  He  was  linked  to  the
  assassination  of  Jackson  at  Aurangabad.  Sentenced  to  imprisonment  in  the
  Andamans from 1911-24.
Shyamji Krishna India  House  had  become  centre  of  V.D  Savarkar,  Sardar  Singh  Rana,  Madam
Verma Bhikaji kama & Madan Lal Dhingra.
Madam Kama Represented India in the International Conference at Stutteguard in Germany.

 

 

 

Madan Lal He short dead the assistant of the Secretary of State Curzon Wyllie. Gopal Krishna
Dhingra Gokhale clled it as a heinous act meant to spoil the name of India.
Chandra Shekhar Involved in the assassination of Saunders (officer who ordered the Lathi Charge in
Azad which Lala Lajpat was killed), alongwith Bhagat Singh & Rajguru. He had chalked
  out a plan to blow up the train in which the Viceroy Lord Irwin was traveling. He
  was killed in a police encounter  at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
Harkishen Talwar Shot  the  Governor  of  Punjab  but  the  latter  escaped  with  injuries  only  Later
  Harkishen was hanged.
Bhagat Singh In association with Chhabil Das & Yashpal he had founded the Punjab Naujavan
  Bharat Sabha.
Rani Gaidinliu Lead the Nagas in the revolt. Yadunaga was the other leader.
Subhas Chandra Passed  the Civils  in  1920 but  preferred to  serve  the  nationalist  cause. He  was
Bose elected  the  Mayor  of  Calcutta  in  1923  but  soon  arrested  &  sent  to  Mandalay.
  Elected President at the Haripura session of Congress in 1938. He left for Kabul
  along with his friend Bhagat Ram. From there he went to Germany & met Hitler.
  He was first addressed as Netaji in Germany.
Udham Singh Whilst living in England in 1940, Singh shot dead Sir Michael O’Dwyer, former
  Governor General of the Punjab.

 

GRASSLAND ECOSYTEM

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found where rainfall is about 25-75 cm per year, not enough to support a forest, but more than that of a true desert.

vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates.

In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India’s grasslands aremainly composed of steppes and savannas.

Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline soil; in western Rajasthan, where the climate is semi-arid,

The major difference between steppes and savannas is that all the forage in the steppe is  provided only during the brief wet season whereas in the savannas forage is largely from grasses that not only grow during the wet season but also from the  smaller amount of regrowth in the dry season.

 

Types of Grasslands

  1. semi-arid zone (The Sehima-dichanthium type)

It covers the northern portion of Gujarat, Rajasthan (excluding Aravallis), western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Punjab.

The topography is broken up by hill spurs and sand dunes.

senegal, Calotropis gigantia, Cassia auriculata, Prosopis cineraria, Salvadora oloides and zizyphus Nummularia which make the savanna rangeland look like scrub.

  1. dry sub humid zone (The Dichanthium- cenchrus-lasitrrus type)

It covers the whole of peninsular India (except Nilgiri).

The thorny bushes are Acacia catechu, Mimosa, Zizyphus (ber) and sometimes fleshy Euphorbia, along with low trees of Anogeissus latifolia, Soymida febrifuga and other deciduous species.

Sehima (grass)is more prevalent on gravel and the cover maybe 27%. Dichanthium (grass) flourishes on level soils and may cover 80% of the ground.

3)  moist subhumid zone(The Phragmities- sacchrum-imperata type)

It covers the Ganga alluvial plain in Northern India.

The topography is level, low lying and ill-drained.

Bothriochloa pertusa, Cypodon dactylon and     Dichanthium annulatum are found in transition zones.

The common trees and shrubs are Acacia arabica, hogeissus, latifolia, Butea monosperma,

Phoenic sylvestris and Zizyphus nummularia.

Some of these are replaced by Borassus sp in the palm savannas especially near Sunderbans.

4) The Themeda – Arundinella type

This extends to the humid montane regions and moist sub-humid axeas of Assam, Manipur,West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and. Jammu and Kashmir.

The savanna is derived from the humid forests on account of shifting cultivation and sheep grazing.

Indian Grasslands and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi and Central Arid Zone Research institute, Jodhpur

Role of fire

fire plays, an important role in the management  of grasslands.

Under moist conditions fire favours grass over trees, whereas in dry conditions fire is often necessary to maintain grasslands against the invasion of desert shrubs.

Burning increases the forage yields, e.g. Cynodon daotylon

Monetary Policies

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Monetary policy is the process by which the monetary authority of a country controls the supply of money, often targeting an inflation rate or interest rate to ensure price stability and general trust in the currency.

Objectives of Monetary Policies are:-

  •  Accelerated growth of the economy
  • Balancing saving and investments
  • Exchange rate stabilization
  • Price stability
  • Employment generation

Monetary Policy could be expansionary or contractionary;  Expansionary policy would increase the total money supply in the economy while contractionary policy would decrease the money supply in the economy.

RBI issues the Bi-Monthly monetary policy statement. The tools available with RBI to achieve the targets of monetary policy are:-

  • Bank rates
  • Reserve Ratios
  • Open Market Operations
  • Intervention in forex market
  • Moral suasion

 

 

Repo Rate- Repo rate is the rate at which the central bank of a country (RBI in case of India) lends money to commercial banks in the event of any shortfall of funds. In the event of inflation, central banks increase repo rate as this acts as a disincentive for banks to borrow from the central bank. This ultimately reduces the money supply in the economy and thus helps in arresting inflation.

Reverse Repo Rate is the rate at which RBI borrows money from the commercial banks.An increase in the reverse repo rate will decrease the money supply and vice-versa, other things remaining constant. An increase in reverse repo rate means that commercial banks will get more incentives to park their funds with the RBI, thereby decreasing the supply of money in the market.

Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) is a specified minimum fraction of the total deposits of customers, which commercial banks have to hold as reserves either in cash or as deposits with the central bank. CRR is set according to the guidelines of the central bank of a country.The amount specified as the CRR is held in cash and cash equivalents, is stored in bank vaults or parked with the Reserve Bank of India. The aim here is to ensure that banks do not run out of cash to meet the payment demands of their depositors. CRR is a crucial monetary policy tool and is used for controlling money supply in an economy.

CRR specifications give greater control to the central bank over money supply. Commercial banks have to hold only some specified part of the total deposits as reserves. This is called fractional reserve banking.

Statutory liquidity ratio (SLR) is the Indian government term for reserve requirement that the commercial banks in India require to maintain in the form of gold, government approved securities before providing credit to the customers.its the ratio of liquid assets to net demand and time liabilities.Apart from Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR), banks have to maintain a stipulated proportion of their net demand and time liabilities in the form of liquid assets like cash, gold and unencumbered securities. Treasury bills, dated securities issued under market borrowing programme and market stabilisation schemes (MSS), etc also form part of the SLR. Banks have to report to the RBI every alternate Friday their SLR maintenance, and pay penalties for failing to maintain SLR as mandated.

Mixed ratio and proportion

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Ratio

Introduction:

Ratio is the relation which one quantity bears to another of the same kind. The ratio of two quantities a and b is the fraction a/b and we write it as a: b.

In the ratio a: b, we call a as the first term or antecedent and b, the second term or consequent.

 

Note: The multiplication or division of each term of a ratio by the same non- zero number does not affect the ratio.

 

Compound Ratio: – It is obtained by multiplying together the numerators for new numerator and denominators for new denominator.

 

 

Example 1. If the ratios are 4:3, 15:20, 2:6 and 3:5 find the compound ratio?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Example2. If we divide 4185 into two parts such that they are in ratio 7:2, then find the values of both the parts?

Sol 2. Let the actual variable be 7x and 2x.

So, the 1st part = 7 ×465=3255

The 2nd part = 2 ×465=930

 

 

Note:

The ratio of first , second and third quantities is given by

ac : bc : bd

 

If the ratio between first and second quantity is a:b and third and fourth is c:d .

Similarly, the ratio of first, second, third and fourth quantities is given by
ace : bce : bde : bdf
If the ratio between first and second quantity is a: b and third and fourth is c:d.

 

                                                 Proportion

 
Introduction:-
Four quantities are said to be proportional if the two ratios are equal i.e.  the A, B, C and D are proportion. It is denoted by “::” it is written as A : B : C : D where A and D are extremes and B and C are called means .
                             Product of the extreme = Product of the means

 

 

Direct proportion: – The two given quantities are so related that if one quantity increases (or decreases) then the other quantity also increases (or decreases).

Example 1. If 5 pens cost Rs 10 then 15 pen cost?

Sol 1. It is seen that if number of pens increases then cost also increases. So,

5 pens: 15 pens:: Rs 10 : required cost

 

 

Inverse proportion: – The two given quantities are so related that if one quantity increases (or decreases) then the other quantity also decreases (or increases).

Example 2.If 10 men can do a work in 20 days then in how many days 20 men can do that work?

Sol 2. Here if men increase then days should decrease, so this is a case of inverse proportion, so

10 men: 20 men :: required days : 20 days

 

 

Rule of three: It Is the method of finding 4th term of a proportion if all the other three are given, if ratio is a:b :: c:d then ,

 

 

 

                                             ALLIGATION

Introduction:-

The word allegation means linking. It is used to find:

  1. The proportion in which the ingredients of given price are mixed to produce a new mixture at a given price.
  2. The mean or average value of mixture when the price of the two or more ingredients and the proportion in which they are mixed are given.

Mathematical Formula:

 

For two ingredient:-

 

 

Example 1: If the rice at Rs 3.20 per kg and the rice at Rs 3.50 per kg be mixed then what should be their proportion so that the new mixture be worth Rs 3.35 per kg ?

Sol 1: CP of 1 kg of cheaper rice                          CP of 1 kg of dearer rice

Hence they must be mixed in equal proportion i.e. 1:1

 

 

Example 2: Find out the ratio of new mixture so that it will cost Rs 1.40 per kg from the given three kinds of rice costing Rs 1.20, Rs 1.45 and Rs 1.74?

 

Sol 2: 1st rice cost = 120, 2nd rice cost = 145 and 3rd rice cost = 174 paisa.

From the above rule: we have,

Therefore, three rice must be mixed in 39: 20: 20 ratios to have a new mixture of rice.

 

 

Questions

Level-I

 

..

 1.   A  and B together have Rs. 1210. If  of A’s amount is equal to  of B’s amount, how much amount does B have?
A. Rs. 460
B. Rs. 484
C. Rs. 550
D. Rs. 664

 

2. Two numbers are respectively 20% and 50% more than a third number. The ratio of the two numbers is:
A. 2 : 5
B. 3 : 5
C. 4 : 5
D. 6 : 7

 

 

3. A sum of money is to be distributed among A, B, C, D in the proportion of 5 : 2 : 4 : 3. If C gets Rs. 1000 more than D, what is B’s share?
A. Rs. 500
B. Rs. 1500
C. Rs. 2000
D. None of these

 

 

 

 

4. Seats for Mathematics, Physics and Biology in a school are in the ratio 5 : 7 : 8. There is a proposal to increase these seats by 40%, 50% and 75% respectively. What will be the ratio of increased seats?
A. 2 : 3 : 4
B. 6 : 7 : 8
C. 6 : 8 : 9
D. None of these

 

 

5. In a mixture 60 litres, the ratio of milk and water 2 : 1. If this ratio is to be 1 : 2, then the quanity of water to be further added is:
A. 20 litres
B. 30 litres
C. 40 litres
D. 60 litres
 

6.

  

The ratio of the number of boys and girls in a college is 7 : 8. If the percentage increase in the number of boys and girls be 20% and 10% respectively, what will be the new ratio?
A. 8 : 9
B. 17 : 18
C. 21 : 22
D. Cannot be determined

 

7. Salaries of Ravi and Sumit are in the ratio 2 : 3. If the salary of each is increased by Rs. 4000, the new ratio becomes 40 : 57. What is Sumit’s salary?
A. Rs. 17,000
B. Rs. 20,000
C. Rs. 25,500
D. Rs. 38,000

 

8. If 0.75 : x :: 5 : 8, then x is equal to:
A. 1.12
B. 1.2
C. 1.25
D. 1.30

 

 

9. The sum of three numbers is 98. If the ratio of the first to second is 2 :3 and that of the second to the third is 5 : 8, then the second number is:
A. 20
B. 30
C. 48
D. 58

 

 

  10 .If Rs. 782 be divided into three parts, proportional to  :  : , then the first part is:
A. Rs. 182
B. Rs. 190
C. Rs. 196
D. Rs. 204

 

 

 

 

Answers

  1. Answer:Option B

 

Explanation:

4 A = 2 B
15 5

 

 A = 2 x 15 B
5 4

 

 A = 3 B
2

 

A = 3
B 2

A : B = 3 : 2.

 B’s share = Rs. 1210 x 2 = Rs. 484.
5

 

 

 

 

2 .Answer: Option C

 

Explanation:

Let the third number be x.

Then, first number = 120% of x = 120x = 6x
100 5

 

Second number = 150% of x = 150x = 3x
100 2

 

 Ratio of first two numbers = 6x : 3x = 12x : 15x = 4 : 5.

 

 

3 .Answer: Option C

Explanation:

Let the shares of A, B, C and D be Rs. 5x, Rs. 2x, Rs. 4x and Rs. 3x respectively.

Then, 4x – 3x = 1000

x = 1000.

B’s share = Rs. 2x = Rs. (2 x 1000) = Rs. 2000.

 

 

4 .Answer: Option A

 

Explanation:

 

Originally, let the number of seats for Mathematics, Physics and Biology be 5x, 7x and 8x respectively.

 

Number of increased seats are (140% of 5x), (150% of 7x) and (175% of 8x).

 

140 x 5x , 150 x 7x and 175 x 8x
100 100 100
                             

 

 7x, 21x and 14x.
2
     

 

 The required ratio = 7x : 21x : 14x
2

 

14x : 21x : 28x

 

2 : 3 : 4.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5 .Answer: Option D

 

Explanation:

Quantity of milk = 60 x 2 litres = 40 litres.
3

Quantity of water in it = (60- 40) litres = 20 litres.

New ratio = 1 : 2

Let quantity of water to be added further be x litres.

 

 

Then, milk : water = 40 .
20 + x

 

Now, 40 = 1
20 + x 2

 

20 + x = 80

 

x = 60.

Quantity of water to be added = 60 litres.

 

6 .Answer: Option C

 

Explanation:

 

Originally, let the number of boys and girls in the college be 7x and 8x respectively.

 

Their increased number is (120% of 7x) and (110% of 8x).

 

120 x 7x and 110 x 8x
100 100
                   

 

42x and 44x
5 5
       

 

The required ratio = 42x : 44x = 21 : 22

 

7 .Answer: Option D

 

Explanation:

Let the original salaries of Ravi and Sumit be Rs. 2x and Rs. 3x respectively.

 

Then, 2x + 4000 = 40
3x + 4000 57
       

57(2x + 4000) = 40(3x + 4000)

 

6x = 68,000

 

3x = 34,000

 

Sumit’s present salary = (3x + 4000) = Rs.(34000 + 4000) = Rs. 38,000.

 

 

 

8 .Answer: Option B

 

Explanation:

(x x 5) = (0.75 x 8)    x = 6 = 1.20
5
         

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9 .Answer: Option B

 

Explanation:

Let the three parts be A, B, C. Then,

 

A : B = 2 : 3 and B : C = 5 : 8 = 5 x 3 : 8 x 3 = 3 : 24
5 5 5
                       

 

 A : B : C = 2 : 3 : 24 = 10 : 15 : 24
5
     

 

 B = 98 x 15 = 30.
49

 

 

 

10 .Answer: Option D

 

 

Explanation:

 

Given ratio =  :  :  = 6 : 8 : 9.

 

 1st part = Rs. 782 x 6 = Rs. 204

 

 

 

 

Level-II

11. The salaries A, B, C are in the ratio 2 : 3 : 5. If the increments of 15%, 10% and 20% are allowed respectively in their salaries, then what will be new ratio of their salaries?
A. 3 : 3 : 10
B. 10 : 11 : 20
C. 23 : 33 : 60
D. Cannot be determined

 

 

Answer: Option C

 

Explanation:

Let A = 2k, B = 3k and C = 5k.

A’s new salary = 115 of 2k = 115 x 2k = 23k
100 100 10

 

B’s new salary = 110 of 3k = 110 x 3k = 33k
100 100 10

 

C’s new salary = 120 of 5k = 120 x 5k = 6k
100 100

 

 New ratio 23k : 33k : 6k = 23 : 33 : 60
10 10

 
12. If 40% of a number is equal to two-third of another number, what is the ratio of first number to the second number?
 

A. 2 : 5
B. 3 : 7
C. 5 : 3
D. 7 : 3

Answer: Option C

 

Explanation:

Let 40% of A = 2 B
3

 

Then, 40A = 2B
100 3

 

2A = 2B
5 3

 

A = 2 x 5 = 5
B 3 2 3

A : B = 5 : 3.

 

13. The fourth proportional to 5, 8, 15 is:
A. 18
B. 24
C. 19
D. 20

 

 

Answer: Option B

 

Explanation:

Let the fourth proportional to 5, 8, 15 be x.

Then, 5 : 8 : 15 : x

5x = (8 x 15)

 

x = (8 x 15) = 24.
5

 

 

 

 

14.

  

 

 

Two number are in the ratio 3 : 5. If 9 is subtracted from each, the new numbers are in the ratio 12 : 23. The smaller number is:
A. 27
B. 33
C. 49
D. 55

Answer: Option B

 

Explanation:

Let the numbers be 3x and 5x.

Then, 3x – 9 = 12
5x – 9 23

23(3x – 9) = 12(5x – 9)

9x = 99

x = 11.

The smaller number = (3 x 11) = 33.

 

 

15.

  

 

In a bag, there are coins of 25 p, 10 p and 5 p in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 3. If there is Rs. 30 in all, how many 5 p coins are there?
A. 50
B. 100
C. 150
D. 200

Answer: Option C

 

Explanation:

Let the number of 25 p, 10 p and 5 p coins be x, 2x, 3x respectively.

Then, sum of their values = Rs. 25x + 10 x 2x + 5 x 3x = Rs. 60x
100 100 100 100

 

60x = 30     x = 30 x 100 = 50.
100 60

Hence, the number of 5 p coins = (3 x 50) = 150.

National Parks and Sanctuaries in Rajasthan

by

 

S.No Name of National Parks/ Wild Life Sanctuary District Area(Sq.km.)
National Parks
1 Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur 28.73
2 Ranthambore National Park Sawai Madhopur 392.50
Sub Total 421.23
Sanctuaries
1 Bandh Baratha WL Sanctuary Bharatpur 199.50
2 Bassi WL Sanctuary Chittorgarh 138.69
3 Bhensrodgarh WL Sanctuary Chittorgarh 229.14
4 Darrah Game Sanctuary Kota, Jhalawar 274.41
5 Desert WL Sanctuary Barmer, Jaisalmer 3,162.00
6 Fulwari ki Nal WL Sanctuary Udaipur 492.68
7 Jaisamand WL Sanctuary Udaipur 52.34
8 Jamwa Ramgarh WL Sanctuary Jaipur 300.00
9 Jawahar Sagar WL Sanctuary Kota 153.41
10 Keladevi WL Sanctuary Karoli,Sawai Madhopur 676.40
11 Kesarbagh WL Sanctuary Dholpur 14.76
12 Kumbalgarh WL Sanctuary Udaipur,Rajsamand,Pali 608.57
13 Mount Abu WL Sanctuary Sirohi 112.98
14 Nahargarh WL Sanctuary Jaipur 50.00
15 National Chambal WL Sanctuary Kota, S.Madhopur, Bundi, Dholpur, Karauli 280.00
16 Ramgarh Vishdhari WL Sanctuary Bundi 252.79
17 Ramsagar WL Sanctuary Dholpur 34.40
18 Sajjangarh WL Sanctuary Udaipur 5.19
19 Sariska WL Sanctuary Alwar 557.50
20 Sawai Manshingh WL Sanctuary Sawai Madhopur 127.76
21 Shergarh WL Sanctuary Kota 98.70
22 Sitamata WL Sanctuary Chittorgarh,Udaipur 422.94
23 Tal Chappar WL Sanctuary Churu 7.19
24 Todagarh Rawali WLSanctuary Ajmer,Pali,Rajsamand 463.03
25 Van Vihar WL Sanctuary Dholpur 25.60
Sub Total 8,739.98
Grand Total 9,161.21

 

  1. The term ecosystem was coined by                                                                                          A. Bennett. J.W.              B.  Odum. E.R                                                                                          C. Tansley                         D.  Walter, H.

 

  1. The term ecology was coined by:                                                                                               a. Eton                                  b. HaeckeL       c. Odum, E.P .                     d. Thomas. D.S.G.

 

  1. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the code given below:
  2. The web that links all organisms with their physical environment is known as biosphere.
  3. The biosphere extends from the bottom of the ocean trenches up to 8 km above the sea level.
  4. Biosphere is synonymous with ecosphere
  5. Biosphere is found only on Earth in the Solar System.

 

Code:

  1. 1,2 and 3 arc correct, b. 1,3 and 4 are correct,
  2. 2, 3 and 4 are correct. d. 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct.

 

  1. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the code given below
  2. The scientific study of the interaction between organisms and environment is known as ecology.
  3. The term ecology was coined by Odum, E.R

Code:

  1. Only 1 is correct. b. Only 2 is correct.
  2. Both 1 and 2 are correct. d. Neither 1 nor 2 is correct.

 

  1. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the code given below:

1 Phosphorus is abundant in nature                           .

  1. Phosphorus is an excretory product.
  2. Phosphorus cycle can be disrupted by the use of chemical fertilizers.
  3. Phosphates in the soil are taken into the plant for protection.

 

Code:

  1. 1,2 and 3 are correct. b. 1,3 and 4 are correct
  2. 2, 3, and 4 are correct. d. 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct.
  3. The mean productivity is highest in which of the following?
  4. Grassland b. Continental shelf
  5. Cultivated land d. Fresh water
  6. Consider the following statements and select the correct answer using the code that follows:
  7. A food chain is the sequence of energy transfer from the low er levels to the higher trophic levels.
  8. All animals depend on plants for their food.
  9. Fox may eat grass.

Code:

  1. 1 and 2 arc correct. b. 1 and 3 are correct
  2. 2 and 3 are correct. d. 1, 2 and 3 are correct.

 

  1. Which one of the following is not a primary consumer:
  2. Buffalo b. Goat
  3. Lizard d. Rabbit

 

  1. Which one of the following is not a tertian- consumer?
  2. Frog b. Leopard
  3. Lion d. Vulture
  4. Arrange the following animals in a sequential trophic level and select the correct answer using the code given below:
  5. Eagle 2. Frog
  6. Insect 4. Plant
  7. Snake

Code:

  1. Plant, insect, frog,eagle and snake
  2. Plant, insect, frog, snake and eagle
  3. Plant, frog,insect, snake and eagle
  4. Plant,insect,frog, eagle and snake

 

ANALOGY LEVEL 1

by

 

When you draw an analogy between two things we compare them for the purpose of explanation. If a scientist says that earth’s forest functions as human lungs then we instantly draw an explanation that both lungs and trees intake important elements from air. As far as SSC exam is concerned this is one of the trickiest section. We intend to comprehend it by solving as many different types of questions as is asked in papers. Presently in the level 1 exam a good aspirant must be able to solve at least 7 out of 10 questions given.

 

In each of the following questions, select the related word/number from the given alternative:

 

  1. Flow : River :: Stagnant : ?                                                                                                                  A. Rain              B. Stream             C. Pool                       D. Canal

 

 

  1. Ornithologist : Bird :: Archaeologist : ?                                                                                          A.Islands             B. Mediators                        C. Archaeology       D.Aquatic

 

 

  1. Peacock : India :: Bear : ?                                                                                                         A.Australia          B. America             C. Russia        D. England

 

 

  1. Given set: (3,7,15)                                                                                                                                A. 2,6,10     B. 4,8,18       C. 5,9,17       D. 7,12,19

 

 

  1. Given set: (63,49,35)                                                                                                                            A. 81,63,45                  B. 64,40,28              C. 72,40,24              D. 72,48,24

 

 

  1. 3 : 243 :: 5 : ?                                                                                                                                            A. 405               B. 465                   C. 3125                     D. 546

 

 

  1. 5 : 36 :: 6 : ?                                                                                                                                                A. 48               B. 50                 C. 49              D. 56

 

 

  1. TALE : LATE :: ? : CAFE                                                                                                                          A. FACE                 B. CAEF                  C. CAFA                     D. FEAC

 

 

  1. AZBY : DWEV :: HSIR : ?                                                                                                                   A. JQKO                B. KPOL                  C. KPLO                     D. KOLP

 

 

  1. DE : 45 :: BC : ?                                                                                                                                           A. 34              B. 23              C. 56              D. 43

 

 

 

 

SOLUTION TO ANALOGY LEVEL 1

 

 

 

  1. Answer: Option C

Explanation: As Water of a River flows similarly water of Pool is Stagnant. Answer & Explanation

 

 

  1. Answer: Option C

Explanation: As Ornithologist is a specialist of Birds similarly Archaeologist is a specialist of Archaeology.

 

 

  1. Answer: Option C

Explanation: As Peacock is the national bird of India, similarly Bear is the national animal of Russia.

 

 

  1. Ans. Option C

Explanation:  1st number+4 = 2nd number

2nd number+8= 3rd number

 

 

  1. Ans. Option A

Explanation:  63= 7*9

49= 7*7

35= 7*5

 

 

  1. Ans. Option C

Explanation: 3^5=243

5^5=3125

 

 

  1. Ans. Option A

Explanation: 13^2+13=182

18^2+18=342

19^2+19=380

 

 

  1. Ans. Option A

Explanation: The first and the third letters has been interchanged

 

 

  1. Ans. Option C

Explanation: Pairs of opposite letter

A&Z,  B&Y,  similarly H&S,  I&R,  K&P,  L&O

 

 

  1. Ans. Option B

Explanation: D=4,  E=5,  similarly  B=2,  C=3

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